206
J. Nabhitabhata
this species covers the Indian Ocean and the West Pacific, 50–150°E, 40°N–30°S
(Reid 1998; Reid et al. 2005). This cuttlefish is one of the largest sepiid species of
economic importance (Supongpan 1995). Roper et al. (1984) and Reid et al. (2005)
have stated that the maximum size of S� pharaonis is between 350 and 420 mm in
mantle length and between 4,200 and 5,000 g in weight, respectively. Chotiyaputta
(1982, 1995) have reported that the maximum size of this species in Thailand is
about 260 mm in mantle length and 1,400 g in body weight, the most common sizes
captured being between 40 and 260 mm. In India, the sizes of the mostly captured
cuttlefish are between 90 and 230 mm, with a maximum size of 334 mm (Nair
et al. 1993; Silas et al. 1985). Females are larger than males, and the male to female
sex ratio in the wild is 1:3. The individual fecundity averages 1,400 (800–2,700)
eggs in the wild stocks (Chotiyaputta 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982). The spawning is
intermittent terminal and occurs all the year round, with two peaks annually, as a
consequence of the plasticity in their life cycle, which is less than 1 year either in
the short or long mode (Nabhitabhata and Nilaphat 1999).
The total capture of the cuttlefish worldwide is approximately 500,000 t, and
has exceeded 250,000 t since 1977, 300,000 t from 1991 to 2008 with a rise to
more than 400,000 t during 1995–2002 (Jereb et al. 2005; Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations 2010). The major producers of total cuttlefish
are China (> 50 %) and Thailand (> 15 %). The pharaoh cuttlefish, S� pharaonis,
constitutes about 16 %, or 10,000 t, of the approximately 60,000 t of total cuttlefish
that is landed annually by commercial fishing in Thailand. The yield is mainly from
offshore otter-board and pair trawlers (> 90 %), with some addition from inshore
squid trapping, trammel netting, push netting, lift netting and other artisanal fishing
activities (Nair et al. 1993; Supongpan 1995). The main target species of squid traps
is the bigfin squid, Sepioteuthis lessoniana that constitutes 90–95 % of the catch,
but S� pharaonis is a major by-catch, of approximately 5–10 %, with a maximum of
30 % (Boongerd and Rachaniyom 1990; Chotiyaputta and Yamrungreung 1998; Department of Fisheries 2009; see also Chap. 17 of this volume). For the 2,000–7,000 t
annual yield of cephalopods from inshore trap fishing in Thailand since 1981, the
cuttlefish yield is about 100–700 t (Department of Fisheries 2012).
The cuttlefish S� pharaonis is normally benthic in habit and ritually lies on or
burrows into the substratum. The pharaoh cuttlefish is habitually solitary, but is also
referred to as being moderately aggregative (Chikuni 1983; Nabhitabhata 1978).
Nair et al. (1985) reported that adult S� pharaonis in the wild had a strong positive
phototaxis, but this is different from observations in captivity, where this species has
a moderate positive phototaxis. After 1–3 h of lighting, only about 50 % of the cuttlefish hatchlings move from the dark chamber to the light chamber in an experimental
tank (Nabhitabhata, unpublished data). This moderately positive response agrees
well with the evidence that the major catch of this species was not from the lightluring fishing but from the trawling, which is in contrast to loliginid squid fishing.
Large-scale aquaculture of the pharaoh cuttlefish has been studied since 1978
(Nabhitabhata 1978) in Thailand, later in India (Anil et al. 2005) and the USA
(Minton et al. 2001). The low growth rate and small final weight of about 370 g
obtained in captivity are disadvantageous for aquaculture in terms of quantitative
production compared to those with larger weight of more than 1,000 g from fisheries
J. Nabhitabhata
this species covers the Indian Ocean and the West Pacific, 50–150°E, 40°N–30°S
(Reid 1998; Reid et al. 2005). This cuttlefish is one of the largest sepiid species of
economic importance (Supongpan 1995). Roper et al. (1984) and Reid et al. (2005)
have stated that the maximum size of S� pharaonis is between 350 and 420 mm in
mantle length and between 4,200 and 5,000 g in weight, respectively. Chotiyaputta
(1982, 1995) have reported that the maximum size of this species in Thailand is
about 260 mm in mantle length and 1,400 g in body weight, the most common sizes
captured being between 40 and 260 mm. In India, the sizes of the mostly captured
cuttlefish are between 90 and 230 mm, with a maximum size of 334 mm (Nair
et al. 1993; Silas et al. 1985). Females are larger than males, and the male to female
sex ratio in the wild is 1:3. The individual fecundity averages 1,400 (800–2,700)
eggs in the wild stocks (Chotiyaputta 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982). The spawning is
intermittent terminal and occurs all the year round, with two peaks annually, as a
consequence of the plasticity in their life cycle, which is less than 1 year either in
the short or long mode (Nabhitabhata and Nilaphat 1999).
The total capture of the cuttlefish worldwide is approximately 500,000 t, and
has exceeded 250,000 t since 1977, 300,000 t from 1991 to 2008 with a rise to
more than 400,000 t during 1995–2002 (Jereb et al. 2005; Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations 2010). The major producers of total cuttlefish
are China (> 50 %) and Thailand (> 15 %). The pharaoh cuttlefish, S� pharaonis,
constitutes about 16 %, or 10,000 t, of the approximately 60,000 t of total cuttlefish
that is landed annually by commercial fishing in Thailand. The yield is mainly from
offshore otter-board and pair trawlers (> 90 %), with some addition from inshore
squid trapping, trammel netting, push netting, lift netting and other artisanal fishing
activities (Nair et al. 1993; Supongpan 1995). The main target species of squid traps
is the bigfin squid, Sepioteuthis lessoniana that constitutes 90–95 % of the catch,
but S� pharaonis is a major by-catch, of approximately 5–10 %, with a maximum of
30 % (Boongerd and Rachaniyom 1990; Chotiyaputta and Yamrungreung 1998; Department of Fisheries 2009; see also Chap. 17 of this volume). For the 2,000–7,000 t
annual yield of cephalopods from inshore trap fishing in Thailand since 1981, the
cuttlefish yield is about 100–700 t (Department of Fisheries 2012).
The cuttlefish S� pharaonis is normally benthic in habit and ritually lies on or
burrows into the substratum. The pharaoh cuttlefish is habitually solitary, but is also
referred to as being moderately aggregative (Chikuni 1983; Nabhitabhata 1978).
Nair et al. (1985) reported that adult S� pharaonis in the wild had a strong positive
phototaxis, but this is different from observations in captivity, where this species has
a moderate positive phototaxis. After 1–3 h of lighting, only about 50 % of the cuttlefish hatchlings move from the dark chamber to the light chamber in an experimental
tank (Nabhitabhata, unpublished data). This moderately positive response agrees
well with the evidence that the major catch of this species was not from the lightluring fishing but from the trawling, which is in contrast to loliginid squid fishing.
Large-scale aquaculture of the pharaoh cuttlefish has been studied since 1978
(Nabhitabhata 1978) in Thailand, later in India (Anil et al. 2005) and the USA
(Minton et al. 2001). The low growth rate and small final weight of about 370 g
obtained in captivity are disadvantageous for aquaculture in terms of quantitative
production compared to those with larger weight of more than 1,000 g from fisheries