99
6 Welfare and Diseases Under Culture Conditions
mechanical agents. Despite the fact that cephalopods have a “rudimental immunological system” when compared to vertebrates, this system is quite effective. In fact,
the simplicity of cephalopods as living animals and of this system has determined
the scarce reporting of illnesses in captivity for this class over the years. Cephalopods have such a simple way of life that when they suffer injury, they will, depending on the importance to their survival, regenerate some structures such as arms
(Feral 1978, 1979, 1988; Rohrbach and Schmidtberg 2006). This way of living fast
and dying young is particularly evident in their protein turnover (Houlihan et al.
1990) and in their fast growth.
Most literature regarding the pathology of cephalopods in captivity, covering an
extensive list of pathological causes, was elaborated at the end of the 1980s and in
the beginning of the 1990s, when interest on the culture of these classes emerged. In
captive conditions, pathological findings are usually related to problems in seawater
systems’ design and daily running and transportation of live animals to and from the
laboratory. Since this is an area of research with a very short report list, this section
includes published and unpublished data.
6.1.2.1 “Cephalopods Immune System”
Cephalopods have a well-developed circulatory system conformed by a systemic
heart and two accessory hearts (branchial hearts) that function co-ordinately to
distribute haemolymph through arteries and capillaries to the whole body (Fiedler
and Schipp 1987, 1991; Fiedler 1992; Schipp 1987a; Versen et al. 1997; Wells and
Smith 1987). Additionally, haemocyanin production and the elimination of particles
are attributed to the branchial hearts (Beuerlein et al. 1998; Beuerlein and Schipp
1998; Beuerlein et al. 2002b). In molluscs, the haemocytes play a main role in
the internal defence by the recognition and the elimination of foreign materials as
well as shell and wound repair (Cheng 1975). In cephalopods, “haemocytes” are
produced in the white body located behind the eyes in the orbital pits of the cranial
cartilages (Cowden 1972). The functional morphology of the white bodies of Sepia
officinalis and comparisons with other cephalopod species were studied by Claes
(1996), who found similarities that support the hypothesis that the white blood
cells are involved in haemopoiesis and reticuloendothelial functions. A single type
of hemocytes has been identified classically in cephalopods. However, recently
Castellanos-Martínez et al. (2013) described two types of hemocytes in the common
octopus Octopus vulgaris, involved as in other molluscs, in the repair of damaged
has been identified in cephalopods and it is involved in the repair of damaged tissues, nutrient transport and digestion and internal defence against nonself material
(Cheng 2000; Chu 2000). Wound repair involves the movement and aggregation of
haemocytes at the injured site to prevent bleeding until epithelial cells grow over
the wound to complete the healing (Chu 2000). Haemocytes are capable of forming
a plug which is accompanied with vasoconstriction and collagen synthesis to repair
a lesion (Feral 1988).
Similar to other molluscs, cephalopods have a nonadaptive (or innate) immune system; they do not have immunoglobulins and therefore they do not have
6 Welfare and Diseases Under Culture Conditions
mechanical agents. Despite the fact that cephalopods have a “rudimental immunological system” when compared to vertebrates, this system is quite effective. In fact,
the simplicity of cephalopods as living animals and of this system has determined
the scarce reporting of illnesses in captivity for this class over the years. Cephalopods have such a simple way of life that when they suffer injury, they will, depending on the importance to their survival, regenerate some structures such as arms
(Feral 1978, 1979, 1988; Rohrbach and Schmidtberg 2006). This way of living fast
and dying young is particularly evident in their protein turnover (Houlihan et al.
1990) and in their fast growth.
Most literature regarding the pathology of cephalopods in captivity, covering an
extensive list of pathological causes, was elaborated at the end of the 1980s and in
the beginning of the 1990s, when interest on the culture of these classes emerged. In
captive conditions, pathological findings are usually related to problems in seawater
systems’ design and daily running and transportation of live animals to and from the
laboratory. Since this is an area of research with a very short report list, this section
includes published and unpublished data.
6.1.2.1 “Cephalopods Immune System”
Cephalopods have a well-developed circulatory system conformed by a systemic
heart and two accessory hearts (branchial hearts) that function co-ordinately to
distribute haemolymph through arteries and capillaries to the whole body (Fiedler
and Schipp 1987, 1991; Fiedler 1992; Schipp 1987a; Versen et al. 1997; Wells and
Smith 1987). Additionally, haemocyanin production and the elimination of particles
are attributed to the branchial hearts (Beuerlein et al. 1998; Beuerlein and Schipp
1998; Beuerlein et al. 2002b). In molluscs, the haemocytes play a main role in
the internal defence by the recognition and the elimination of foreign materials as
well as shell and wound repair (Cheng 1975). In cephalopods, “haemocytes” are
produced in the white body located behind the eyes in the orbital pits of the cranial
cartilages (Cowden 1972). The functional morphology of the white bodies of Sepia
officinalis and comparisons with other cephalopod species were studied by Claes
(1996), who found similarities that support the hypothesis that the white blood
cells are involved in haemopoiesis and reticuloendothelial functions. A single type
of hemocytes has been identified classically in cephalopods. However, recently
Castellanos-Martínez et al. (2013) described two types of hemocytes in the common
octopus Octopus vulgaris, involved as in other molluscs, in the repair of damaged
has been identified in cephalopods and it is involved in the repair of damaged tissues, nutrient transport and digestion and internal defence against nonself material
(Cheng 2000; Chu 2000). Wound repair involves the movement and aggregation of
haemocytes at the injured site to prevent bleeding until epithelial cells grow over
the wound to complete the healing (Chu 2000). Haemocytes are capable of forming
a plug which is accompanied with vasoconstriction and collagen synthesis to repair
a lesion (Feral 1988).
Similar to other molluscs, cephalopods have a nonadaptive (or innate) immune system; they do not have immunoglobulins and therefore they do not have