22
J. Kooiman and M. Bavinck
(Coen 2007 ; Beyers et al. 2008 ) . ‘Stakeholder’ is a related concept that is applied
to private actors or entities involved in a public matter or issue (Mitchell et al.
1997 ; Bryson 2004 ; Buanes et al. 2004 ) . In the earlier stages of debate, stakeholders
were mainly seen in the context of commercial fi rms. In contemporary development discourse, as in other disciplinary approaches, the concept has now become
widely applied.
Participation in social movements is far from commonplace, and even large
movements mobilize only relatively small proportions of the population (Meyer
et al. 2002 ; Nash 2005 ) . The collective character of social action is not self-evident
either. The manner in which social discontent is transformed into organized action
has always been a key issue in social movement literature. It has been given some
attention in fi sheries (Sundar 2012 ) .
Hierarchical Governing Interactions
Hierarchical governance is the usual style in which governments interact with their
citizens, either as individuals or collected in groups or organizations. This governance mode, however, is also practiced in the private sector as many private organizations have hierarchical structures. The terms ‘policy’ and ‘management’ subsume
much of what hierarchical governance is about. Both imply a fl ow moving from
governing system to system-to-be-governed. It is interesting to note that fi sheries
management is often criticized for relying too much on a hierarchical model of
decision-making (e.g. Raakjær 2009 ) .
‘Policy’ has been theorized in many different ways. An overview counts at least
ten policy process theories, some more popular and elaborated than others (Sabatier
1999 ) . For a long time, actor-oriented notions of policy process were the usual mode
of analysis. More recently, however, an interest has grown in the relation of policy
to broader societal and governance processes (e.g. Hill and Hupe 2009 ) . Along the
way, positivist, neo-positivist, modernist and post-modernist analytical and constructivist approaches to policy studies have waxed and waned. The most classical
approach is still to distinguish between stages or phases within a policy process
(Kooiman 2003 ) . Although not undisputed, this approach is still useful to “help
disaggregate an otherwise seamless web of public policy transactions […] and
transitions distinguished by differentiated actions and purposes” (DeLeon and
Resnick-Terry 1999 , 24).
‘Management’ is relatively new concept in the debate on public governance.
In recent decades, the fi elds of Public Management and later, New Public
Management have expanded enormously, with major attention being paid to matters
such as ef fi ciency, effectiveness, value for money, excellence, and performance
(Ferlie et al. 2005 ) . Although the main focus is on ‘how to run a service as a business’,
external relations have also been highlighted. The attention given to the client
or customer of services is an indication of the interest available for the fi eld of
governing interactions.
J. Kooiman and M. Bavinck
(Coen 2007 ; Beyers et al. 2008 ) . ‘Stakeholder’ is a related concept that is applied
to private actors or entities involved in a public matter or issue (Mitchell et al.
1997 ; Bryson 2004 ; Buanes et al. 2004 ) . In the earlier stages of debate, stakeholders
were mainly seen in the context of commercial fi rms. In contemporary development discourse, as in other disciplinary approaches, the concept has now become
widely applied.
Participation in social movements is far from commonplace, and even large
movements mobilize only relatively small proportions of the population (Meyer
et al. 2002 ; Nash 2005 ) . The collective character of social action is not self-evident
either. The manner in which social discontent is transformed into organized action
has always been a key issue in social movement literature. It has been given some
attention in fi sheries (Sundar 2012 ) .
Hierarchical Governing Interactions
Hierarchical governance is the usual style in which governments interact with their
citizens, either as individuals or collected in groups or organizations. This governance mode, however, is also practiced in the private sector as many private organizations have hierarchical structures. The terms ‘policy’ and ‘management’ subsume
much of what hierarchical governance is about. Both imply a fl ow moving from
governing system to system-to-be-governed. It is interesting to note that fi sheries
management is often criticized for relying too much on a hierarchical model of
decision-making (e.g. Raakjær 2009 ) .
‘Policy’ has been theorized in many different ways. An overview counts at least
ten policy process theories, some more popular and elaborated than others (Sabatier
1999 ) . For a long time, actor-oriented notions of policy process were the usual mode
of analysis. More recently, however, an interest has grown in the relation of policy
to broader societal and governance processes (e.g. Hill and Hupe 2009 ) . Along the
way, positivist, neo-positivist, modernist and post-modernist analytical and constructivist approaches to policy studies have waxed and waned. The most classical
approach is still to distinguish between stages or phases within a policy process
(Kooiman 2003 ) . Although not undisputed, this approach is still useful to “help
disaggregate an otherwise seamless web of public policy transactions […] and
transitions distinguished by differentiated actions and purposes” (DeLeon and
Resnick-Terry 1999 , 24).
‘Management’ is relatively new concept in the debate on public governance.
In recent decades, the fi elds of Public Management and later, New Public
Management have expanded enormously, with major attention being paid to matters
such as ef fi ciency, effectiveness, value for money, excellence, and performance
(Ferlie et al. 2005 ) . Although the main focus is on ‘how to run a service as a business’,
external relations have also been highlighted. The attention given to the client
or customer of services is an indication of the interest available for the fi eld of
governing interactions.