273
14 Approaches and Tools for Examining Governability
(e.g. Senge 1990 ; Senge et al. 1999 ; Collison and Parcell 2001 ) . Berkes et al. ( 2001 )
provide a number of suggestions for how better management of information can
improve institutional memory and adaptive capacity. A recent manual on information
sharing and management by the FAO similarly addresses these issues ( 2009 ) .
Finally, with heightened recognition of the importance of stakeholders’ participation
in decision-making process, methods have been developed to enhance participation and improve quality of interaction among stakeholders. Deliberative multistakeholder process is one such method. It focuses on collaborative problem solving,
with stakeholders jointly de fi ning the problems and developing solutions (Varjopuro
2008 ) . A systemic observation of such a process can help assess the quality of the
governing interactions.
Meta-order Governance
As explained by Kooiman and Jentoft ( 2009 ) , meta-order governance plays a critical
role in fostering or inhibiting the governing ability of the governing system.
Normative governance traits such as values and principles, as well as subjective
attributes like images that individuals and institutions hold about the system that is
being governed and the governing system, are key aspects that need to be understood,
deliberated and communicated (Jentoft et al. 2010 ) . This is because they underpin
the way governing actors perceive, de fi ne and perform their roles.
Although applications to fi sheries are rather limited, methods and approaches
developed for valuation of natural resources and environmental services are valid.
As de Groot et al. ( 2002 ) suggest, ecological values are related to resource sustainability, social and cultural values are associated with equity and cultural perceptions, and economic values are about ef fi ciency and cost effectiveness. Monetary
valuation methods to estimate economic values are well developed and have been
used to inform policymaking. These include direct market valuation based on production function and indirect market valuation such as replacement cost, travel cost
and hedonic pricing methods. The most commonly used, and perhaps the most
debated, valuation method is contingent valuation, which attempts at estimating
people’s willingness to pay (Haab and McConnell 2002 ) . Critics argue that marketbased approaches do not capture the overall values of environmental resources well,
because they are often not traded in markets and thus have no price tag. Creating
hypothetical market situations (as is done in contingent valuation studies) can therefore lead to misleading outcomes (Knetsch 1994 ) . In many instances, it is best not
to employ monetary valuation methods, no matter how tempting it may be. Some
alternative approaches to valuation are choice experiments, which are not based on
market prices but can still include monetary amounts in the choice set (e.g., Holmes
and Adamowicz 2003 ) . They can also be conducted using non-monetized units, as
is done in the damage schedule approach (Chuenpagdee et al. 2001 ) . Other deliberative methods, such as verbal protocols (Vatn 2009 ) and citizen workshops
(Timotijevic and Raats 2007 ) , are also used to obtain values, especially those related
to the social and cultural aspects of the environment.
14 Approaches and Tools for Examining Governability
(e.g. Senge 1990 ; Senge et al. 1999 ; Collison and Parcell 2001 ) . Berkes et al. ( 2001 )
provide a number of suggestions for how better management of information can
improve institutional memory and adaptive capacity. A recent manual on information
sharing and management by the FAO similarly addresses these issues ( 2009 ) .
Finally, with heightened recognition of the importance of stakeholders’ participation
in decision-making process, methods have been developed to enhance participation and improve quality of interaction among stakeholders. Deliberative multistakeholder process is one such method. It focuses on collaborative problem solving,
with stakeholders jointly de fi ning the problems and developing solutions (Varjopuro
2008 ) . A systemic observation of such a process can help assess the quality of the
governing interactions.
Meta-order Governance
As explained by Kooiman and Jentoft ( 2009 ) , meta-order governance plays a critical
role in fostering or inhibiting the governing ability of the governing system.
Normative governance traits such as values and principles, as well as subjective
attributes like images that individuals and institutions hold about the system that is
being governed and the governing system, are key aspects that need to be understood,
deliberated and communicated (Jentoft et al. 2010 ) . This is because they underpin
the way governing actors perceive, de fi ne and perform their roles.
Although applications to fi sheries are rather limited, methods and approaches
developed for valuation of natural resources and environmental services are valid.
As de Groot et al. ( 2002 ) suggest, ecological values are related to resource sustainability, social and cultural values are associated with equity and cultural perceptions, and economic values are about ef fi ciency and cost effectiveness. Monetary
valuation methods to estimate economic values are well developed and have been
used to inform policymaking. These include direct market valuation based on production function and indirect market valuation such as replacement cost, travel cost
and hedonic pricing methods. The most commonly used, and perhaps the most
debated, valuation method is contingent valuation, which attempts at estimating
people’s willingness to pay (Haab and McConnell 2002 ) . Critics argue that marketbased approaches do not capture the overall values of environmental resources well,
because they are often not traded in markets and thus have no price tag. Creating
hypothetical market situations (as is done in contingent valuation studies) can therefore lead to misleading outcomes (Knetsch 1994 ) . In many instances, it is best not
to employ monetary valuation methods, no matter how tempting it may be. Some
alternative approaches to valuation are choice experiments, which are not based on
market prices but can still include monetary amounts in the choice set (e.g., Holmes
and Adamowicz 2003 ) . They can also be conducted using non-monetized units, as
is done in the damage schedule approach (Chuenpagdee et al. 2001 ) . Other deliberative methods, such as verbal protocols (Vatn 2009 ) and citizen workshops
(Timotijevic and Raats 2007 ) , are also used to obtain values, especially those related
to the social and cultural aspects of the environment.