222
R. De la Cruz Modino and J.J. Pascual-Fernández
Ecological Reserve ( 2001 ) . The six categories of protected areas proposed by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are also widely cited (IUCN
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas 1994 ) . All these de fi nitions
have some common general traits. To a certain extent, an MPA may be regarded as
a territorial measure, characterized by the exclusion of some uses and/or users of
speci fi c resources in delimited areas. The key factor is the exclusionary capacity of
these areas or resources, which needs to be enforced in some way so as to avoid
being labeled a “paper park” with scarce practical relevance. In 2008, protected
areas covered approximately 0.65% of the world’s oceans and about 1.6% of the
total marine area within Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) (Wood et al. 2008 ) .
Notwithstanding the progress made in the previous decades, these fi gures fall far
short of the targets set by international organizations, such as the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), which suggests the protection of 10% of all eco-regions
in the world (including marine and coastal areas) before 2010 (CBD-UNEP 2006 ) .
At the end of 2010, the data suggested that only 1.17% of the world’s oceans was
protected, and probably for this reason the countries that signed the CBD extended
the deadline until 2020 (Cressey 2011 ) .
On the whole, MPAs comprise a territorial model that has been propelled, to a
certain degree, by resource crisis and conservation paradigms. MPA goals can be
multiple and diverse, and need to be researched empirically (Jentoft et al. 2011 ) . In
the 1970s, the primary driver for MPA creation was related to conservation (Noël
and Weigel 2007 ; Thorpe et al. 2011 ) . All too frequently, this led to the marginalization of traditional users linked to those areas. The human side of the ecosystem
was often considered irrelevant despite the considerable evidence suggesting that
humans play an important role in many contemporary ecosystems (Vitousek et al.
1997 ; Stepp et al. 2003 ) . As of the 1980s, the perception of MPAs began to change
towards multiple use and sustainability. The implementation of MPAs, or protected
areas in general, means that certain capacities for control of the space are assigned
to the State or to a variety of institutional arrangements. Speci fi c stakeholders may
play a leading role in such arrangements. In some cases, there may be conservation-related non-governmental organizations (NGOs), while in others fi shers’
organizations may take the lead, since traditional extractive uses of artisanal
fi sheries may feasibly be considered central elements of MPA goals. Analyzing the
creation processes of any MPA from step zero may help to understand how different stakeholders, but also local communities, negotiate their own future or the
future of resources considered essential for their social reproduction and continuity
(Chuenpagdee and Jentoft 2007 ) .
MPAs have an impact on local community resource governance mechanisms,
transforming the conventional fi sheries management systems (Thorpe et al. 2011 ) .
It is not unusual to fi nd con fl icts arising between traditional users of marine
resources and conservationists in relation to MPAs, especially during creation
processes. Perspectives on marine environment conservation about what should be
achieved with these MPAs and how are likely to vary between conservationists,
scientists, governments and fi shers. In some cases, MPAs may be conceived solely
R. De la Cruz Modino and J.J. Pascual-Fernández
Ecological Reserve ( 2001 ) . The six categories of protected areas proposed by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are also widely cited (IUCN
Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas 1994 ) . All these de fi nitions
have some common general traits. To a certain extent, an MPA may be regarded as
a territorial measure, characterized by the exclusion of some uses and/or users of
speci fi c resources in delimited areas. The key factor is the exclusionary capacity of
these areas or resources, which needs to be enforced in some way so as to avoid
being labeled a “paper park” with scarce practical relevance. In 2008, protected
areas covered approximately 0.65% of the world’s oceans and about 1.6% of the
total marine area within Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) (Wood et al. 2008 ) .
Notwithstanding the progress made in the previous decades, these fi gures fall far
short of the targets set by international organizations, such as the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), which suggests the protection of 10% of all eco-regions
in the world (including marine and coastal areas) before 2010 (CBD-UNEP 2006 ) .
At the end of 2010, the data suggested that only 1.17% of the world’s oceans was
protected, and probably for this reason the countries that signed the CBD extended
the deadline until 2020 (Cressey 2011 ) .
On the whole, MPAs comprise a territorial model that has been propelled, to a
certain degree, by resource crisis and conservation paradigms. MPA goals can be
multiple and diverse, and need to be researched empirically (Jentoft et al. 2011 ) . In
the 1970s, the primary driver for MPA creation was related to conservation (Noël
and Weigel 2007 ; Thorpe et al. 2011 ) . All too frequently, this led to the marginalization of traditional users linked to those areas. The human side of the ecosystem
was often considered irrelevant despite the considerable evidence suggesting that
humans play an important role in many contemporary ecosystems (Vitousek et al.
1997 ; Stepp et al. 2003 ) . As of the 1980s, the perception of MPAs began to change
towards multiple use and sustainability. The implementation of MPAs, or protected
areas in general, means that certain capacities for control of the space are assigned
to the State or to a variety of institutional arrangements. Speci fi c stakeholders may
play a leading role in such arrangements. In some cases, there may be conservation-related non-governmental organizations (NGOs), while in others fi shers’
organizations may take the lead, since traditional extractive uses of artisanal
fi sheries may feasibly be considered central elements of MPA goals. Analyzing the
creation processes of any MPA from step zero may help to understand how different stakeholders, but also local communities, negotiate their own future or the
future of resources considered essential for their social reproduction and continuity
(Chuenpagdee and Jentoft 2007 ) .
MPAs have an impact on local community resource governance mechanisms,
transforming the conventional fi sheries management systems (Thorpe et al. 2011 ) .
It is not unusual to fi nd con fl icts arising between traditional users of marine
resources and conservationists in relation to MPAs, especially during creation
processes. Perspectives on marine environment conservation about what should be
achieved with these MPAs and how are likely to vary between conservationists,
scientists, governments and fi shers. In some cases, MPAs may be conceived solely