206
Y. Liu et al.
Resource Competition and User Con fl ict
Space limitation and increased use of coastal waters mean higher levels of con fl icts
among local resource users (Sønvisen 2003 ; Maurstad et al. 2007 ) . In competing for
the same passages or watercourses, for instance, salmon farms may have con fl icts
with wild salmon fi sheries and recreational activities (Liu et al. 2011 ) . Recreational
anglers were willing to pay substantially less for the high share of escaped farmed
salmon in rivers (Olaussen and Liu 2011 ) . At an international level, global competition and demand for fi shmeal and fi sh oil have intensi fi ed with the rapid expansion
of salmon farming and intensive aquaculture of other carnivorous species, such as
turbot, halibut and cod. This competition has led to increasing prices of fi shmeal
and fi sh oil, consequently resulting in increasing production costs for salmon aquaculture producers. This competition will likely intensify, because almost 90% of the
global fi sh oil production is currently used by industrial aquaculture (Tacon and
Metian 2008 ) , unless alternative sources to replace fi sh oil in aquafeed are
discovered.
Market
Existing international markets such as the United States, the European Union and
Japan may be approaching saturation, and the development of new markets is still at
an early stage. Hence, the marketing of farmed salmon products has become very
competitive. The falling market prices of farmed salmon, due largely to increasing
global production, have resulted in low pro fi tability for producers, driving some of
them out of business. Some countries (like Norway and Chile) have been accused of
dumping their farmed products in European Union and United States markets
(Asche 2001 ) . This may result in higher trade barriers being placed on them as other
producing countries try to protect their domestic market shares. Since producers in
Chile have the lowest production costs, they generally have a trade advantage with
respect to competitors like Norway and Canada.
Food Safety
Consumers have been increasingly concerned about seafood safety and the quality
of farmed fi sh. Since salmon aquaculture farms use chemicals and drugs to treat
diseases and parasites, and require fi shmeal and fi sh oil as protein sources, there are
concerns about the potential accumulation of contaminants in the salmon. Health
risk is another issue affecting salmon farming. Studies suggest, for instance, that
persistent organic pollutants (e.g., PCB, DDT) are higher in farmed salmon than in
wild salmon (e.g., Hites et al. 2004 ) .
Y. Liu et al.
Resource Competition and User Con fl ict
Space limitation and increased use of coastal waters mean higher levels of con fl icts
among local resource users (Sønvisen 2003 ; Maurstad et al. 2007 ) . In competing for
the same passages or watercourses, for instance, salmon farms may have con fl icts
with wild salmon fi sheries and recreational activities (Liu et al. 2011 ) . Recreational
anglers were willing to pay substantially less for the high share of escaped farmed
salmon in rivers (Olaussen and Liu 2011 ) . At an international level, global competition and demand for fi shmeal and fi sh oil have intensi fi ed with the rapid expansion
of salmon farming and intensive aquaculture of other carnivorous species, such as
turbot, halibut and cod. This competition has led to increasing prices of fi shmeal
and fi sh oil, consequently resulting in increasing production costs for salmon aquaculture producers. This competition will likely intensify, because almost 90% of the
global fi sh oil production is currently used by industrial aquaculture (Tacon and
Metian 2008 ) , unless alternative sources to replace fi sh oil in aquafeed are
discovered.
Market
Existing international markets such as the United States, the European Union and
Japan may be approaching saturation, and the development of new markets is still at
an early stage. Hence, the marketing of farmed salmon products has become very
competitive. The falling market prices of farmed salmon, due largely to increasing
global production, have resulted in low pro fi tability for producers, driving some of
them out of business. Some countries (like Norway and Chile) have been accused of
dumping their farmed products in European Union and United States markets
(Asche 2001 ) . This may result in higher trade barriers being placed on them as other
producing countries try to protect their domestic market shares. Since producers in
Chile have the lowest production costs, they generally have a trade advantage with
respect to competitors like Norway and Canada.
Food Safety
Consumers have been increasingly concerned about seafood safety and the quality
of farmed fi sh. Since salmon aquaculture farms use chemicals and drugs to treat
diseases and parasites, and require fi shmeal and fi sh oil as protein sources, there are
concerns about the potential accumulation of contaminants in the salmon. Health
risk is another issue affecting salmon farming. Studies suggest, for instance, that
persistent organic pollutants (e.g., PCB, DDT) are higher in farmed salmon than in
wild salmon (e.g., Hites et al. 2004 ) .