204
Y. Liu et al.
It bene fi ts from government support, a suitable coastal environment, a cheap labor
force and large feed availability. Chile is the world’s fastest growing salmon aquaculture producer. Given its current rate of growth, Chilean production will likely
surpass that of Norway (Liu and Sumaila 2008 ) . In the last few years, however, this
growth has plunged due to the outbreak of deadly infectious salmon anemia (ISA)
(Asche et al. 2010 ) .
In Canada, salmon aquaculture technology was introduced in the 1970s to help
the economies of coastal communities recover from the decline of the fi shing and
forestry sectors. Salmon aquaculture initially began along the Sunshine Coast in
British Columbia, western Canada, with native salmon species such as chinook and
coho. Atlantic salmon was later introduced to this area because of its biological
resilience and fast growth rate. Farmed salmon production from British Columbia
contributes about two-thirds of the total farmed salmon production in Canada. The
rest comes from the Bay of Fundy on the east coast. In recent years, salmon producers in British Columbia have been challenged by many environmental activists due
to growing concerns over related environmental issues such as sea lice.
Like other aquaculture industries, salmon aquaculture has experienced remarkable growth over the years as a result of the expansion of farming areas in new locations, improved productivity, enhanced husbandry practices and management,
economies of scale, and growing global markets (Bjørndal et al. 2002, 2003 ; Asche
and Khatun 2006 ; Asche 2008 ) . In the beginning, salmon farms were small family
businesses, scattered along sheltered inlets and fjords, and targeting local markets
(Holm and Jentoft 1996 ; Willoughby 1999 ; Hjelt 2000 ) . Some of these small family
farms eventually went bankrupt and many were replaced by farms owned by a few
multinational companies and joint cooperatives (Willoughby 1999 ) . Today, salmon
aquaculture has become a vertically-integrated and export-oriented commercial,
for-pro fi t enterprise (Bjørndal et al. 2003 ; Asche and Khatun 2006 ) . It is estimated
that 70–80% of farmed salmon production comes from a dozen multinational companies (Naylor et al. 2003 ) . Farmed salmon products used to be luxury seafood
available mainly in restaurants. Nowadays, these products have become more
affordable and are readily available in many food markets worldwide (Forster 2002 ) .
As previously mentioned, the controversy over environmental impacts and low
pro fi tability may have slowed down salmon aquaculture development in most
producing countries. However, the drastic decline in farmed production in Chile
has driven up the market prices for the last two years, resulting in a steady increase
in production and pro fi tability outside Chile, in places like Norway.
Salmon Aquaculture Industry as a System-to-Be-Governed
Salmon aquaculture is an industrialized, commercial industry with established
technologies and markets. An open net-cage production system is normally used,
although size, shape and associated structures differ slightly between one location
and the next. For instance, the production systems in Norway tend to be more capital
Y. Liu et al.
It bene fi ts from government support, a suitable coastal environment, a cheap labor
force and large feed availability. Chile is the world’s fastest growing salmon aquaculture producer. Given its current rate of growth, Chilean production will likely
surpass that of Norway (Liu and Sumaila 2008 ) . In the last few years, however, this
growth has plunged due to the outbreak of deadly infectious salmon anemia (ISA)
(Asche et al. 2010 ) .
In Canada, salmon aquaculture technology was introduced in the 1970s to help
the economies of coastal communities recover from the decline of the fi shing and
forestry sectors. Salmon aquaculture initially began along the Sunshine Coast in
British Columbia, western Canada, with native salmon species such as chinook and
coho. Atlantic salmon was later introduced to this area because of its biological
resilience and fast growth rate. Farmed salmon production from British Columbia
contributes about two-thirds of the total farmed salmon production in Canada. The
rest comes from the Bay of Fundy on the east coast. In recent years, salmon producers in British Columbia have been challenged by many environmental activists due
to growing concerns over related environmental issues such as sea lice.
Like other aquaculture industries, salmon aquaculture has experienced remarkable growth over the years as a result of the expansion of farming areas in new locations, improved productivity, enhanced husbandry practices and management,
economies of scale, and growing global markets (Bjørndal et al. 2002, 2003 ; Asche
and Khatun 2006 ; Asche 2008 ) . In the beginning, salmon farms were small family
businesses, scattered along sheltered inlets and fjords, and targeting local markets
(Holm and Jentoft 1996 ; Willoughby 1999 ; Hjelt 2000 ) . Some of these small family
farms eventually went bankrupt and many were replaced by farms owned by a few
multinational companies and joint cooperatives (Willoughby 1999 ) . Today, salmon
aquaculture has become a vertically-integrated and export-oriented commercial,
for-pro fi t enterprise (Bjørndal et al. 2003 ; Asche and Khatun 2006 ) . It is estimated
that 70–80% of farmed salmon production comes from a dozen multinational companies (Naylor et al. 2003 ) . Farmed salmon products used to be luxury seafood
available mainly in restaurants. Nowadays, these products have become more
affordable and are readily available in many food markets worldwide (Forster 2002 ) .
As previously mentioned, the controversy over environmental impacts and low
pro fi tability may have slowed down salmon aquaculture development in most
producing countries. However, the drastic decline in farmed production in Chile
has driven up the market prices for the last two years, resulting in a steady increase
in production and pro fi tability outside Chile, in places like Norway.
Salmon Aquaculture Industry as a System-to-Be-Governed
Salmon aquaculture is an industrialized, commercial industry with established
technologies and markets. An open net-cage production system is normally used,
although size, shape and associated structures differ slightly between one location
and the next. For instance, the production systems in Norway tend to be more capital