112
J.J. Pascual-Fernández and R. Chuenpagdee
Stresses and Challenges to Ecosystem Health
1
Humans have been related to and dependent on coastal areas and oceanic ecosystems
since hunter and gatherers’ societies. This dependency has increased in the last
centuries with the growing and changing demographics in coastal areas around the
world. The diversity of human uses in these areas has also increased with expansions in the exploitation of underwater mineral resources, such as petroleum and
gas, and renewable resources like fi sheries, as well as ongoing development of
harbor and related infrastructure for maritime transport. Human pressures on the
oceans are much higher today than in any other moment in history. Increased attention must therefore be paid to questions regarding the means by which we govern
the ecosystems we depend on, and how to mediate the relationship between human
societies and nature.
The continuous modi fi cation of coastal and marine ecosystems by human societies means their survival is at stake. They are vulnerable to changes that may end up
transforming their functions to the point that they are no longer able to provide ecosystem services and goods. Past lessons show that some of these changes are not
reversible and that their effects can be drastic. Cod fi sheries collapse in Newfoundland
is a good example of how anthropogenic changes may strike back on coastal populations (Finlayson and McCay 1998 ) . Human-nature interactions are frequently
inscribed in co-evolution processes that, for instance, allowed humans to develop
seeds (for agriculture) that slowly changed with and because of human behavior.
This consequently made the transformation from hunter and gatherer societies into
agricultural adaptations possible (Rindos 1984 ) . In other circumstances, humannature interactions may be conducive to abrupt changes and unforeseeable consequences, such as when pressures on the ecosystems or human populations
compromise their integrity and resilience. As described, the relationship between
human societies and ecosystems creates increasing concerns about the health of
coastal and marine ecosystems.
Several integrated management frameworks and ecosystem-based approaches
have been employed to address these concerns. Some of them, such as the one promoted by Resilience Alliance (Berkes and Folke 2000 ; Armitage et al. 2007 ) ,
emphasize linkages between social and ecological systems. While the interactive
governance approach has a similar focus, it is explicit in the examination of all
related systems, i.e., those that are being governed, the governing system and the
interactions between the two, throughout the entire ‘ fi sh chain’ (Kooiman et al.
2005 ) . These systems receive even attention because it is understood that factors
fostering or inhibiting governance can be found in any of them. In addition, looking
at ecosystem health from the governability perspective, as suggested here, is a
1 The research summarized in this chapter is related to the project Governability analysis applied
to the creation process of Marine Protected Areas (GOBAMP, CSO2009-09802), supported by the
Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. We also acknowledge the support from the
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
J.J. Pascual-Fernández and R. Chuenpagdee
Stresses and Challenges to Ecosystem Health
1
Humans have been related to and dependent on coastal areas and oceanic ecosystems
since hunter and gatherers’ societies. This dependency has increased in the last
centuries with the growing and changing demographics in coastal areas around the
world. The diversity of human uses in these areas has also increased with expansions in the exploitation of underwater mineral resources, such as petroleum and
gas, and renewable resources like fi sheries, as well as ongoing development of
harbor and related infrastructure for maritime transport. Human pressures on the
oceans are much higher today than in any other moment in history. Increased attention must therefore be paid to questions regarding the means by which we govern
the ecosystems we depend on, and how to mediate the relationship between human
societies and nature.
The continuous modi fi cation of coastal and marine ecosystems by human societies means their survival is at stake. They are vulnerable to changes that may end up
transforming their functions to the point that they are no longer able to provide ecosystem services and goods. Past lessons show that some of these changes are not
reversible and that their effects can be drastic. Cod fi sheries collapse in Newfoundland
is a good example of how anthropogenic changes may strike back on coastal populations (Finlayson and McCay 1998 ) . Human-nature interactions are frequently
inscribed in co-evolution processes that, for instance, allowed humans to develop
seeds (for agriculture) that slowly changed with and because of human behavior.
This consequently made the transformation from hunter and gatherer societies into
agricultural adaptations possible (Rindos 1984 ) . In other circumstances, humannature interactions may be conducive to abrupt changes and unforeseeable consequences, such as when pressures on the ecosystems or human populations
compromise their integrity and resilience. As described, the relationship between
human societies and ecosystems creates increasing concerns about the health of
coastal and marine ecosystems.
Several integrated management frameworks and ecosystem-based approaches
have been employed to address these concerns. Some of them, such as the one promoted by Resilience Alliance (Berkes and Folke 2000 ; Armitage et al. 2007 ) ,
emphasize linkages between social and ecological systems. While the interactive
governance approach has a similar focus, it is explicit in the examination of all
related systems, i.e., those that are being governed, the governing system and the
interactions between the two, throughout the entire ‘ fi sh chain’ (Kooiman et al.
2005 ) . These systems receive even attention because it is understood that factors
fostering or inhibiting governance can be found in any of them. In addition, looking
at ecosystem health from the governability perspective, as suggested here, is a
1 The research summarized in this chapter is related to the project Governability analysis applied
to the creation process of Marine Protected Areas (GOBAMP, CSO2009-09802), supported by the
Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. We also acknowledge the support from the
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.