92
R.S.V. Pullin
by technophile donors and politicians, simple diet diversi fi cation is also potentially
a very cost-effective and powerful contributor to the relief of protein, essential lipid,
and micronutrient insecurity, especially at household level. In Ghana, for example,
small homestead ponds have enabled family production of vegetables, condiments
such as chillies, and small quantities of fi sh, that together not only improved household income by 229–679% but also transformed household micronutrient security
(Ruddle 1996 ) .
Food Safety
Food fi sh, meaning here all fi n fi sh and aquatic invertebrates and their products in
the human food chain, are prone to rapid spoilage unless well stored and preserved.
This and a wide variety of other human health hazards that can accompany fi sh
production and consumption make food safety an integral requirement for food
fi sh security. The principle here is that all human food must be safe to produce and
to eat. In practice, however, absolute safety can never be guaranteed, because
potential risks are always possible from factors that cannot be completely and
continuously monitored; including microorganisms, allergens, and wind- and
water-borne pollutants.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) ( www.codexalimentarius.net ),
established in 1963 by FAO and the World Health Organization, provides a nearcomprehensive set of safety standards for human foods, including a Code of
Practice for Fish and Fishery Products, with standards covering about 60 general
or speci fi c categories. Food safety has undergone substantial development, largely
through the CAC, with widening implementation of Hazard Analysis Critical
Control Point (HACCP) principles (FAO 1995a ) . Fish producers and processors
who fail to adopt HACCP principles become greatly disadvantaged in the markets,
especially for exports. The result has been a steady transition to greater safety in
the production and consumption of fi sh and fi sh products. From the traditional
focus on hygiene and on removal of unsafe foods from the human food chain, food
safety risks are now analyzed and managed proactively along the human food chain
and, in the case of fi sh and fi sh products, “from farm or sea to plate” (FAO 2006a ,
para. 25). FAO/NACA/WHO ( 1999 ) reviewed food safety issues associated with
aquaculture fi sh chains, including risks from water-borne parasites and pathogens.
Huss et al. ( 2004 ) , for FAO, published a comprehensive review on seafood safety.
In aquaculture, food fi sh safety issues are being linked to production site quality
and environmental impacts (Focardi et al. 2005 ) . Research on food fi sh safety has
included analyses of consumer attitudes (e.g., Jussaume and Higgins 1998 ) and
private sector understanding of compliance with regulations (e.g., Henson and
Heasman 1998 ) .
Despite these advances, food safety problems from fi sh and fi sh products remain,
especially in some developing regions. Poor coastal dwellers are at risk from unsafe
seafood that is self-caught or purchased from local markets, including bivalve molluscs
R.S.V. Pullin
by technophile donors and politicians, simple diet diversi fi cation is also potentially
a very cost-effective and powerful contributor to the relief of protein, essential lipid,
and micronutrient insecurity, especially at household level. In Ghana, for example,
small homestead ponds have enabled family production of vegetables, condiments
such as chillies, and small quantities of fi sh, that together not only improved household income by 229–679% but also transformed household micronutrient security
(Ruddle 1996 ) .
Food Safety
Food fi sh, meaning here all fi n fi sh and aquatic invertebrates and their products in
the human food chain, are prone to rapid spoilage unless well stored and preserved.
This and a wide variety of other human health hazards that can accompany fi sh
production and consumption make food safety an integral requirement for food
fi sh security. The principle here is that all human food must be safe to produce and
to eat. In practice, however, absolute safety can never be guaranteed, because
potential risks are always possible from factors that cannot be completely and
continuously monitored; including microorganisms, allergens, and wind- and
water-borne pollutants.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) ( www.codexalimentarius.net ),
established in 1963 by FAO and the World Health Organization, provides a nearcomprehensive set of safety standards for human foods, including a Code of
Practice for Fish and Fishery Products, with standards covering about 60 general
or speci fi c categories. Food safety has undergone substantial development, largely
through the CAC, with widening implementation of Hazard Analysis Critical
Control Point (HACCP) principles (FAO 1995a ) . Fish producers and processors
who fail to adopt HACCP principles become greatly disadvantaged in the markets,
especially for exports. The result has been a steady transition to greater safety in
the production and consumption of fi sh and fi sh products. From the traditional
focus on hygiene and on removal of unsafe foods from the human food chain, food
safety risks are now analyzed and managed proactively along the human food chain
and, in the case of fi sh and fi sh products, “from farm or sea to plate” (FAO 2006a ,
para. 25). FAO/NACA/WHO ( 1999 ) reviewed food safety issues associated with
aquaculture fi sh chains, including risks from water-borne parasites and pathogens.
Huss et al. ( 2004 ) , for FAO, published a comprehensive review on seafood safety.
In aquaculture, food fi sh safety issues are being linked to production site quality
and environmental impacts (Focardi et al. 2005 ) . Research on food fi sh safety has
included analyses of consumer attitudes (e.g., Jussaume and Higgins 1998 ) and
private sector understanding of compliance with regulations (e.g., Henson and
Heasman 1998 ) .
Despite these advances, food safety problems from fi sh and fi sh products remain,
especially in some developing regions. Poor coastal dwellers are at risk from unsafe
seafood that is self-caught or purchased from local markets, including bivalve molluscs