174
(family Batrachoididae; Gray and Winn 1961 ; Cohen and Winn 1967 ), searobins
( Prionotus carolinus ; Fish 1954 ), cichlids (family Cichlidae; Lobel 2001 ), damselfi shes ( Chromis viridis ; Amorim 1996 ), gobies (family Gobiidae; Fish and Mowbray
1970 ), and catfi shes (families Pimelodidae, Mochokidae, and Doradidae; Ladich
1997 ). Behaviors that are evoked by particular acoustic signals can be in the context
of aggression (Myrberg 1981 ; Ladich 1997 ) or affi liative behavior (Fine 1978 ;
Brantley and Bass 1994 ). These characterized behaviors to specifi c stimuli can be
used to measure properties of the auditory system for these species. For example,
behavioral studies of female midshipman fi sh ( Porichthys notatus ) have used the
advertisement call of males to investigate the salient acoustic cues (e.g., pressure
and particle motion) used in sound source localization by females (Zeddies et al.
2010 , 2012 ). In these studies, the authors played an acoustic stimulus similar to the
fundamental frequency of the male midshipman’s advertisement call to females
released approximately 100 cm from the sound source and then tracked the females’
paths to the source. The authors showed that midshipman use particle motion cues
to localize sound sources. Using this method, the same research group was able to
determine in subsequent studies (Coffi n et al. 2014 ) that pressure reception via the
swim bladder is likely important for sound source localization but the lateral line
system may not be required for localizing sound sources.
Because positive phonotaxis is robust in gravid female midshipman, the use of
this behavior has become a powerful tool to understand how fi sh localize simple and
complex sound sources. However, these phonotaxis behaviors are often diverse and
species-specifi c and therefore may not be useful for all fi sh species.
4 Experimental Design Considerations for Psychoacoustics
Experiments
The experimental design and the appropriate use of behavioral methods are important considerations in the study of fi sh audition. Conditioning and PPI are two of the
most sensitive behavioral methods that have been used to investigate fi sh hearing,
but both of these methods come with certain advantages and disadvantages as mentioned previously. Conditioning methods have been very effective in determining
absolute hearing thresholds and frequency discrimination in a number of fi sh species. Both conditioning and PPI are useful in studies of noise exposure and comparative hearing because they are precise and such mechanisms are conserved
across taxa. However, one must also consider how acoustic stimuli are presented
during behavioral experiments. Issues of tank acoustics, sound generation, and the
characterization of pressure/particle motion stimuli have been discussed elsewhere
(Popper and Fay 1973 , 1993 ), but how acoustic stimuli are presented has been and
continues to be a very important consideration (reviewed in Hawkins 1981 ).
A.A. Bhandiwad and J.A. Sisneros
(family Batrachoididae; Gray and Winn 1961 ; Cohen and Winn 1967 ), searobins
( Prionotus carolinus ; Fish 1954 ), cichlids (family Cichlidae; Lobel 2001 ), damselfi shes ( Chromis viridis ; Amorim 1996 ), gobies (family Gobiidae; Fish and Mowbray
1970 ), and catfi shes (families Pimelodidae, Mochokidae, and Doradidae; Ladich
1997 ). Behaviors that are evoked by particular acoustic signals can be in the context
of aggression (Myrberg 1981 ; Ladich 1997 ) or affi liative behavior (Fine 1978 ;
Brantley and Bass 1994 ). These characterized behaviors to specifi c stimuli can be
used to measure properties of the auditory system for these species. For example,
behavioral studies of female midshipman fi sh ( Porichthys notatus ) have used the
advertisement call of males to investigate the salient acoustic cues (e.g., pressure
and particle motion) used in sound source localization by females (Zeddies et al.
2010 , 2012 ). In these studies, the authors played an acoustic stimulus similar to the
fundamental frequency of the male midshipman’s advertisement call to females
released approximately 100 cm from the sound source and then tracked the females’
paths to the source. The authors showed that midshipman use particle motion cues
to localize sound sources. Using this method, the same research group was able to
determine in subsequent studies (Coffi n et al. 2014 ) that pressure reception via the
swim bladder is likely important for sound source localization but the lateral line
system may not be required for localizing sound sources.
Because positive phonotaxis is robust in gravid female midshipman, the use of
this behavior has become a powerful tool to understand how fi sh localize simple and
complex sound sources. However, these phonotaxis behaviors are often diverse and
species-specifi c and therefore may not be useful for all fi sh species.
4 Experimental Design Considerations for Psychoacoustics
Experiments
The experimental design and the appropriate use of behavioral methods are important considerations in the study of fi sh audition. Conditioning and PPI are two of the
most sensitive behavioral methods that have been used to investigate fi sh hearing,
but both of these methods come with certain advantages and disadvantages as mentioned previously. Conditioning methods have been very effective in determining
absolute hearing thresholds and frequency discrimination in a number of fi sh species. Both conditioning and PPI are useful in studies of noise exposure and comparative hearing because they are precise and such mechanisms are conserved
across taxa. However, one must also consider how acoustic stimuli are presented
during behavioral experiments. Issues of tank acoustics, sound generation, and the
characterization of pressure/particle motion stimuli have been discussed elsewhere
(Popper and Fay 1973 , 1993 ), but how acoustic stimuli are presented has been and
continues to be a very important consideration (reviewed in Hawkins 1981 ).
A.A. Bhandiwad and J.A. Sisneros