nutrients than the Pacific and is less productive, although there are some embayments that have nutrient enrichment due to river run-off (D’Croz and Robertson
1997; O’Dea et al. 2007). The principal currents of the Caribbean Sea go from east
to west. The isthmus deviates some water to the south along Nicaragua, Costa Rica
and Panama (Fig. 3.1). The rest of the water continues to the west towards
Honduras and then north into Belize (Jackson and D’Croz 1997). This coast has two
main Gulfs: (1) the Gulf of Honduras shared by Belize, Guatemala and Honduras
(Harborne et al. 2001; Heyman and Kjerfve 2001) and (2) the Gulf de los Mosquitos
in Panama which includes the semi-enclosed bay of Bocas del Toro (Cortés 2007).
The Caribbean of CA has four carbonate platforms in Belize, Honduras and
Nicaragua (Miskitos), and Panama (Bocas del Toro and San Blas) (Cortés 2007).
Belize has the largest atolls of the Caribbean and one of the largest barrier reefs of
the world (Gibson and Carter 2003). Long stretches of this coast are low-lying and
may be associated with coastal lagoons or canals and swamps (Cortés 2007).
The aim of this chapter is to review and detail echinoderm research in CA, from
Belize to Costa Rica on the Caribbean side, and from Guatemala to Costa Rica on
the Pacific side. The echinoderm research from Panama is reviewed by Coppard
and Alvarado (Chap. 4) due to the greater amount of information from that
country. In order to highlight future needs of new research lines, we present a
review of the main expeditions in the region, and describe ecological and other
studies from both coasts as well as the other research efforts carried out.
3.2 Echinoderm Research
The knowledge of the CA echinoderm fauna is disperse and scarce for some of its
groups. Alvarado and Cortés (2004, 2009) divided the research of echinoderms in
the region into two periods. The first period, from mid-nineteenth century to the
mid-twentieth century, was characterized by expeditions from North America and
Europe, in a period when most of the local species were described. The second
period, from mid-twentieth century to the present, has been characterized by
widespread interest in ecology done by local scientists at research stations in CA.
Echinoderm research in CA started on the Caribbean side in 1884 (although the
first report was from Panama by Verrill (1867) when the US Fish Commission
Steamer Albatross expedition collected the asteroid Sclerasterias tanneri from
Honduran waters. Between 1888 and 1891, the Albatross visited the Pacific side of
CA. Those expeditions, led by Alexander Agassiz, collected mostly from Cocos
Island and Cocos Ridge (Ludwig 1894, 1905; Lütken and Mortensen 1899;
Alvarado 2010). Ludwig (1894, 1905), Agassiz (1898) and Lütken and Mortensen
(1899) described many new species of asteroids, ophiuroids, echinoids and holothurians from the eastern Pacific. The asteroid Pauliella aenigma, the echinoids
Hesperocidaris panamensis and Centrocidaris doederleini, and the holothurian
Psolus diomedeae were species described from specimens collected at Cocos
Island, Costa Rica (Alvarado 2010).
70
J. J. Alvarado et al.
1997; O’Dea et al. 2007). The principal currents of the Caribbean Sea go from east
to west. The isthmus deviates some water to the south along Nicaragua, Costa Rica
and Panama (Fig. 3.1). The rest of the water continues to the west towards
Honduras and then north into Belize (Jackson and D’Croz 1997). This coast has two
main Gulfs: (1) the Gulf of Honduras shared by Belize, Guatemala and Honduras
(Harborne et al. 2001; Heyman and Kjerfve 2001) and (2) the Gulf de los Mosquitos
in Panama which includes the semi-enclosed bay of Bocas del Toro (Cortés 2007).
The Caribbean of CA has four carbonate platforms in Belize, Honduras and
Nicaragua (Miskitos), and Panama (Bocas del Toro and San Blas) (Cortés 2007).
Belize has the largest atolls of the Caribbean and one of the largest barrier reefs of
the world (Gibson and Carter 2003). Long stretches of this coast are low-lying and
may be associated with coastal lagoons or canals and swamps (Cortés 2007).
The aim of this chapter is to review and detail echinoderm research in CA, from
Belize to Costa Rica on the Caribbean side, and from Guatemala to Costa Rica on
the Pacific side. The echinoderm research from Panama is reviewed by Coppard
and Alvarado (Chap. 4) due to the greater amount of information from that
country. In order to highlight future needs of new research lines, we present a
review of the main expeditions in the region, and describe ecological and other
studies from both coasts as well as the other research efforts carried out.
3.2 Echinoderm Research
The knowledge of the CA echinoderm fauna is disperse and scarce for some of its
groups. Alvarado and Cortés (2004, 2009) divided the research of echinoderms in
the region into two periods. The first period, from mid-nineteenth century to the
mid-twentieth century, was characterized by expeditions from North America and
Europe, in a period when most of the local species were described. The second
period, from mid-twentieth century to the present, has been characterized by
widespread interest in ecology done by local scientists at research stations in CA.
Echinoderm research in CA started on the Caribbean side in 1884 (although the
first report was from Panama by Verrill (1867) when the US Fish Commission
Steamer Albatross expedition collected the asteroid Sclerasterias tanneri from
Honduran waters. Between 1888 and 1891, the Albatross visited the Pacific side of
CA. Those expeditions, led by Alexander Agassiz, collected mostly from Cocos
Island and Cocos Ridge (Ludwig 1894, 1905; Lütken and Mortensen 1899;
Alvarado 2010). Ludwig (1894, 1905), Agassiz (1898) and Lütken and Mortensen
(1899) described many new species of asteroids, ophiuroids, echinoids and holothurians from the eastern Pacific. The asteroid Pauliella aenigma, the echinoids
Hesperocidaris panamensis and Centrocidaris doederleini, and the holothurian
Psolus diomedeae were species described from specimens collected at Cocos
Island, Costa Rica (Alvarado 2010).
70
J. J. Alvarado et al.