depth of 25 m are sand bottoms with or without seagrasses, reefs in shallow
patches, Acropora ridges, rocky esplanades with isolated corals and gorgonians
ending in an escarpment or contour. Reefs in deep patches and spurs and groves
very close to the wall. In general, the Isle of Youth possesses healthy reefs,
although some indicators, such as the damaging effect of a dense growth of algae
and cyanophytes over sessile benthic organisms and the scarcity of large herbivorous or carnivorous fish indicate the existence of potential disruptions in the reef
(De la Guardia et al. 2004).
12.1.3 Mangrove Swamps
Most of the Cuban Archipelago coasts are lined with mangroves, as well as
swampy areas and thousands of coastal lagoons and estuaries. This biotope in
Cuba is integrated by four arboreal species: mangle rojo (red mangrove) (Rhizophora mangle), mangle prieto (black mangrove) (Avicennia germinans), and
patabán (Laguncularia racemosa), considered true mangroves, and the yana
(Conocarpus erectus), a false or pseudomangrove. The mangrove swamps occupy
approximately 4.8 % of the national territory, 26 % of the forest surface of the
country (Alcolado 2007).
Approximately 30 % of Cuban mangroves are being affected by an increase in
salinity and nutrient depletion, the result of damming, pollution and illegal
deforestation. There has also been an increase in contamination from sugar mills,
mining, oil refineries, paper and alcohol industries and cattle farms. Hydrologic
changes on the coasts and at sea have been produced by building dams and
viaducts over the sea. The effect on coasts that have lost the frontline protection of
red mangrove produces a sudden accumulation of sand (Alcolado 2007).
12.2 Echinoderm Research
The earliest researches on echinoderms made in Cuban seas were by the vessels
‘‘Blake’’ (1877–1879), ‘‘Fish Hawk’’ (1880–1881), ‘‘Albatross’’ (1883–1884),
‘‘Vanderbilt’’ (1921–1928), ‘‘Eagle’’ and ‘‘Ara’’ (1921–1930), and the ‘‘Atlantis’’
(1938–1939). Leading specialists from Cuba and abroad participated in these
voyages and made valuable contributions to echinoderm knowledge, especially for
those species inhabiting deep waters off Cuba. Most of the results obtained from
those investigations are in the works of Théel (1886), Agassiz (1869, 1878, 1880,
1888), Verrill (1899), Clark (1917, 1931, 1940, 1947, 1950), Clark (1919, 1933,
1941), Deichmann (1930, 1940, 1954, 1963), and Thomas (1963).
Other foreign specialists have made major contributions to the echinoderm
knowledge in Cuba, including Boone (1933, 1935), Mortensen, with his masterpiece ‘‘Monograph of Echinoidea’’ (1928, 1935, 1940, 1943a, b, 1948a, b, 1950,
406
R. d. Valle-García et al.
patches, Acropora ridges, rocky esplanades with isolated corals and gorgonians
ending in an escarpment or contour. Reefs in deep patches and spurs and groves
very close to the wall. In general, the Isle of Youth possesses healthy reefs,
although some indicators, such as the damaging effect of a dense growth of algae
and cyanophytes over sessile benthic organisms and the scarcity of large herbivorous or carnivorous fish indicate the existence of potential disruptions in the reef
(De la Guardia et al. 2004).
12.1.3 Mangrove Swamps
Most of the Cuban Archipelago coasts are lined with mangroves, as well as
swampy areas and thousands of coastal lagoons and estuaries. This biotope in
Cuba is integrated by four arboreal species: mangle rojo (red mangrove) (Rhizophora mangle), mangle prieto (black mangrove) (Avicennia germinans), and
patabán (Laguncularia racemosa), considered true mangroves, and the yana
(Conocarpus erectus), a false or pseudomangrove. The mangrove swamps occupy
approximately 4.8 % of the national territory, 26 % of the forest surface of the
country (Alcolado 2007).
Approximately 30 % of Cuban mangroves are being affected by an increase in
salinity and nutrient depletion, the result of damming, pollution and illegal
deforestation. There has also been an increase in contamination from sugar mills,
mining, oil refineries, paper and alcohol industries and cattle farms. Hydrologic
changes on the coasts and at sea have been produced by building dams and
viaducts over the sea. The effect on coasts that have lost the frontline protection of
red mangrove produces a sudden accumulation of sand (Alcolado 2007).
12.2 Echinoderm Research
The earliest researches on echinoderms made in Cuban seas were by the vessels
‘‘Blake’’ (1877–1879), ‘‘Fish Hawk’’ (1880–1881), ‘‘Albatross’’ (1883–1884),
‘‘Vanderbilt’’ (1921–1928), ‘‘Eagle’’ and ‘‘Ara’’ (1921–1930), and the ‘‘Atlantis’’
(1938–1939). Leading specialists from Cuba and abroad participated in these
voyages and made valuable contributions to echinoderm knowledge, especially for
those species inhabiting deep waters off Cuba. Most of the results obtained from
those investigations are in the works of Théel (1886), Agassiz (1869, 1878, 1880,
1888), Verrill (1899), Clark (1917, 1931, 1940, 1947, 1950), Clark (1919, 1933,
1941), Deichmann (1930, 1940, 1954, 1963), and Thomas (1963).
Other foreign specialists have made major contributions to the echinoderm
knowledge in Cuba, including Boone (1933, 1935), Mortensen, with his masterpiece ‘‘Monograph of Echinoidea’’ (1928, 1935, 1940, 1943a, b, 1948a, b, 1950,
406
R. d. Valle-García et al.