Among the most common sea urchin species of the Brazilian coast are
E. lucunter and L. variegatus. Both are commonly used in ecotoxicological assays
(Prósperi 1993, 2002; Mastroti 1997; Nascimento et al. 2002; Prósperi and Araújo
2002; Abessa et al. 2003; Nilin et al. 2007; Perina et al. 2011). For instance, Perina
et al. (2011) showed that embryotoxicity experiments using L. variegatus have
shown different effects of two antifouling agents (tributyltin or TBT, and triphenyltin or TPT) and two booster biocides (Irgarol and Diuron). Embryoniclarval effects of these two antifouling agents were quite different, i.e. development
was interrupted at the blastula and gastrula stages at two TBT concentrations (1.25
and 2.5 lg l
-1 , respectively) while the pluteus stage was reached at the same
concentrations of TPT. Different ecotoxicological effects were found depending on
concentrations of the two biocides: higher concentrations of Irgarol interrupted
embryonic development at the blastula-gastrula stages while the pluteus stage was
reached under exposure of Diuron at same concentrations. Other studies showed
that embryonic-larval development of E. lucunter and L. variegatus are affected by
chronic toxicity of a chemical mixture of light-stick flags (Cesar-Ribeiro and
Palanch-Hans 2010) and that the chronic toxicity of the sediment in the Guanabara
Bay (Rio de Janeiro) affects the development of L. variegatus (Maranho et al.
2010). Short term chronic toxicity tests with embryos of those species were
standardized by CETESB (1999) and more recently by the Brazilian Association
for Technical Standards (Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas—ABNT)
(ABNT 2006, 2012).
Acute and chronic toxicity assays employing aquatic organisms at different life
stages have been extensively used for environmental monitoring programs.
Gametogenesis and embryonic development are some of the aspects that can be
measured. They deserve special attention due to the effects they can cause at the
population and community levels (Cherr et al. 1992, 1993; Kroeker et al. 2010;
Stumpp et al. 2011).
The ecological relevance of echinoderm communities and the vast knowledge
on their embryology make these animals the best choice for laboratory and field
studies on environmental hazards (Bowmer et al. 1986; Briggs and Wessel 2006;
Stumpp et al. 2011). Several species of Echinoidea, Ophiuroidea and Asteroidea
have been used, especially sea urchins, which account for the higher number of
species and assays described and validated by environmental regulatory agencies
(Environmental Canada 1992, 2011; EPA 1995; ABNT 2006, 2012; Nilin et al.
2008). Among the most studied sea urchin species are Paracentrotus lividus,
A. lixula, L. variegatus, E. lucunter and Strongylocentrotus purpuratus.
The use of sea urchin embryos in short-chronic toxicity assays for environmental monitoring and toxicity assessment has been very significant all over the
world. More recently this model proved to be suitable also for the evaluation of the
biological effects of global warming and ocean acidification (Clark et al. 2009;
Dupont et al. 2010; Kroeker et al. 2010; Stumpp et al. 2011). Investigations of the
effects of global warming on development of echinoderms with different developmental strategies (i.e. planktothrophic and lecitothrophic development) are
currently starting in Brazil (C.R.R. Ventura, pers. comm.). Sea-urchin embryos
312
C. R. R. Ventura et al.
E. lucunter and L. variegatus. Both are commonly used in ecotoxicological assays
(Prósperi 1993, 2002; Mastroti 1997; Nascimento et al. 2002; Prósperi and Araújo
2002; Abessa et al. 2003; Nilin et al. 2007; Perina et al. 2011). For instance, Perina
et al. (2011) showed that embryotoxicity experiments using L. variegatus have
shown different effects of two antifouling agents (tributyltin or TBT, and triphenyltin or TPT) and two booster biocides (Irgarol and Diuron). Embryoniclarval effects of these two antifouling agents were quite different, i.e. development
was interrupted at the blastula and gastrula stages at two TBT concentrations (1.25
and 2.5 lg l
-1 , respectively) while the pluteus stage was reached at the same
concentrations of TPT. Different ecotoxicological effects were found depending on
concentrations of the two biocides: higher concentrations of Irgarol interrupted
embryonic development at the blastula-gastrula stages while the pluteus stage was
reached under exposure of Diuron at same concentrations. Other studies showed
that embryonic-larval development of E. lucunter and L. variegatus are affected by
chronic toxicity of a chemical mixture of light-stick flags (Cesar-Ribeiro and
Palanch-Hans 2010) and that the chronic toxicity of the sediment in the Guanabara
Bay (Rio de Janeiro) affects the development of L. variegatus (Maranho et al.
2010). Short term chronic toxicity tests with embryos of those species were
standardized by CETESB (1999) and more recently by the Brazilian Association
for Technical Standards (Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas—ABNT)
(ABNT 2006, 2012).
Acute and chronic toxicity assays employing aquatic organisms at different life
stages have been extensively used for environmental monitoring programs.
Gametogenesis and embryonic development are some of the aspects that can be
measured. They deserve special attention due to the effects they can cause at the
population and community levels (Cherr et al. 1992, 1993; Kroeker et al. 2010;
Stumpp et al. 2011).
The ecological relevance of echinoderm communities and the vast knowledge
on their embryology make these animals the best choice for laboratory and field
studies on environmental hazards (Bowmer et al. 1986; Briggs and Wessel 2006;
Stumpp et al. 2011). Several species of Echinoidea, Ophiuroidea and Asteroidea
have been used, especially sea urchins, which account for the higher number of
species and assays described and validated by environmental regulatory agencies
(Environmental Canada 1992, 2011; EPA 1995; ABNT 2006, 2012; Nilin et al.
2008). Among the most studied sea urchin species are Paracentrotus lividus,
A. lixula, L. variegatus, E. lucunter and Strongylocentrotus purpuratus.
The use of sea urchin embryos in short-chronic toxicity assays for environmental monitoring and toxicity assessment has been very significant all over the
world. More recently this model proved to be suitable also for the evaluation of the
biological effects of global warming and ocean acidification (Clark et al. 2009;
Dupont et al. 2010; Kroeker et al. 2010; Stumpp et al. 2011). Investigations of the
effects of global warming on development of echinoderms with different developmental strategies (i.e. planktothrophic and lecitothrophic development) are
currently starting in Brazil (C.R.R. Ventura, pers. comm.). Sea-urchin embryos
312
C. R. R. Ventura et al.