612
W. Judson Kenworthy et al.
over activities that threaten this biome (Coles and
Fortes, 2001; Lee Long and Thom, 2001; Green and
Short, 2003).
C. Science and Non-prescriptive Approaches
Other effective conservation approaches outside of
local, regional, and federal laws include legislatively
required management plans that fuse prescriptive
and non-prescriptive approaches. Non-prescriptive
protection often relies on educational and informational outreach programs involving local citizens, commercial, and industrial stakeholders and
NGO sponsored programs. Scientists should be
encouraged to participate in outreach programs and
partner with trained professionals knowledgeable in
the preparation and presentation of information for
use by public and private sectors to generate scientifically based conservation programs. In this dialogue scientists are challenged to discuss ecosystem principles with a wide range of participants
whose experience in technical scientific issues may
be very limited. To make substantial contributions to
this process scientists must be capable of providing
a clear interpretation of sophisticated and complex
technical information.
Perhaps the most controversial yet promising conservation tool is the design, planning and implementation of Marine Protected Areas (IUNC, 1994;
Lubchenco et al., 2003). Many areas around the
globe exist as protected areas by default simply because human habitation has not reached a level that
is damaging. These locations need to be identified
and evaluated to determine the necessary balance
between conservation programs and traditional use
before the advances of industrial society are exported
to pristine sites (e.g. Cox and Elmqvist, 1993). Of
the estimated 4,000 MPA worldwide 247 are known
to contain seagrasses (Green and Short, 2003). The
two largest seagrass protection areas in the world
occur in two MPAs, Australia’s Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park (GBRMP) (Coles et al., 2000) and in the
United States in the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary (Fourqurean et al., 2001). These are the
two most high-profile examples of seagrass protection on a scale large enough to have regional implications for conservation; however, few MPAs have
been designated with adequate scientific input to
achieve the appropriate boundaries and sizes (Jameson et al., 2002). The slow development of MPAs
is partly due to socio-political misunderstanding,
cost, and inadequate administrative support, especially in the developing world (Coles and Fortes,
2001). Yet, this should not deter future efforts to
redirect scientific resources toward developing nations where the potential for conservation of as yet
undamaged resources is enormous and the pressure
for economic development and population growth is
an even greater threat to existing biodiversity.
V. Implementing Conservation Tools:
Two Examples
We conclude with two examples illustrating the utility of a conservation biology approach to protect
seagrasses. The first example is a program that develops water quality criteria for seagrass conservation in a large estuary in the mid Atlantic region
of the United States. In the second example, taken
from recent experience in Australia, we illustrate the
process of establishing a wider scope of protection
for seagrasses in the Marine Protected Area of the
GBRMP.
A. Chesapeake Bay Seagrass Conservation
and Water Quality Criteria Development
1. Water Quality Management
Vital to the success of any coastal marine conservation effort is the maintenance and improvement
of appropriate water quality standards for seagrass
flora and fauna (Kenworthy and Haunert, 1991; Dennison et al., 1993). One of the best examples of
this is the Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in
the U.S., where scientists, managers and the public have collaborated to conserve seagrasses through
water quality criteria and protection (Dennison et al.,
1993; Batiuk et al., 2000). Here a species level
basic research program, focused on the physiology and autecology of seagrasses (Zostera marina
and Ruppia maritima) and other submerged aquatic
vegetation, incorporated geographic information on
recent and historical seagrass distributions using remote sensing technology, integrated these maps with
bathymetry measurements and water quality data,
and developed a model to predict the presence of seagrass under a combination of water quality scenarios (Dennison et al., 1993; Batiuk et al., 2000). Basic process-oriented research was combined with a
mapping and modeling research program to develop
W. Judson Kenworthy et al.
over activities that threaten this biome (Coles and
Fortes, 2001; Lee Long and Thom, 2001; Green and
Short, 2003).
C. Science and Non-prescriptive Approaches
Other effective conservation approaches outside of
local, regional, and federal laws include legislatively
required management plans that fuse prescriptive
and non-prescriptive approaches. Non-prescriptive
protection often relies on educational and informational outreach programs involving local citizens, commercial, and industrial stakeholders and
NGO sponsored programs. Scientists should be
encouraged to participate in outreach programs and
partner with trained professionals knowledgeable in
the preparation and presentation of information for
use by public and private sectors to generate scientifically based conservation programs. In this dialogue scientists are challenged to discuss ecosystem principles with a wide range of participants
whose experience in technical scientific issues may
be very limited. To make substantial contributions to
this process scientists must be capable of providing
a clear interpretation of sophisticated and complex
technical information.
Perhaps the most controversial yet promising conservation tool is the design, planning and implementation of Marine Protected Areas (IUNC, 1994;
Lubchenco et al., 2003). Many areas around the
globe exist as protected areas by default simply because human habitation has not reached a level that
is damaging. These locations need to be identified
and evaluated to determine the necessary balance
between conservation programs and traditional use
before the advances of industrial society are exported
to pristine sites (e.g. Cox and Elmqvist, 1993). Of
the estimated 4,000 MPA worldwide 247 are known
to contain seagrasses (Green and Short, 2003). The
two largest seagrass protection areas in the world
occur in two MPAs, Australia’s Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park (GBRMP) (Coles et al., 2000) and in the
United States in the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary (Fourqurean et al., 2001). These are the
two most high-profile examples of seagrass protection on a scale large enough to have regional implications for conservation; however, few MPAs have
been designated with adequate scientific input to
achieve the appropriate boundaries and sizes (Jameson et al., 2002). The slow development of MPAs
is partly due to socio-political misunderstanding,
cost, and inadequate administrative support, especially in the developing world (Coles and Fortes,
2001). Yet, this should not deter future efforts to
redirect scientific resources toward developing nations where the potential for conservation of as yet
undamaged resources is enormous and the pressure
for economic development and population growth is
an even greater threat to existing biodiversity.
V. Implementing Conservation Tools:
Two Examples
We conclude with two examples illustrating the utility of a conservation biology approach to protect
seagrasses. The first example is a program that develops water quality criteria for seagrass conservation in a large estuary in the mid Atlantic region
of the United States. In the second example, taken
from recent experience in Australia, we illustrate the
process of establishing a wider scope of protection
for seagrasses in the Marine Protected Area of the
GBRMP.
A. Chesapeake Bay Seagrass Conservation
and Water Quality Criteria Development
1. Water Quality Management
Vital to the success of any coastal marine conservation effort is the maintenance and improvement
of appropriate water quality standards for seagrass
flora and fauna (Kenworthy and Haunert, 1991; Dennison et al., 1993). One of the best examples of
this is the Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in
the U.S., where scientists, managers and the public have collaborated to conserve seagrasses through
water quality criteria and protection (Dennison et al.,
1993; Batiuk et al., 2000). Here a species level
basic research program, focused on the physiology and autecology of seagrasses (Zostera marina
and Ruppia maritima) and other submerged aquatic
vegetation, incorporated geographic information on
recent and historical seagrass distributions using remote sensing technology, integrated these maps with
bathymetry measurements and water quality data,
and developed a model to predict the presence of seagrass under a combination of water quality scenarios (Dennison et al., 1993; Batiuk et al., 2000). Basic process-oriented research was combined with a
mapping and modeling research program to develop