604
W. Judson Kenworthy et al.
chapter emphasizes the need for a conservation biology perspective in seagrass science and the initiation
of research projects guided by the principles of this
discipline.
II. The State of Seagrass Science Relative
to Conservation Biology
While biogeographic and descriptive studies were
done in the early years of seagrass science (Setchell,
1920), publication of ‘The Seagrasses of the World’
(den Hartog, 1970) initiated the modern era of seagrass ecology. Soon after, the first International Seagrass Workshop was held in Leiden, The Netherlands
in October 1973. At this meeting an international body of scientists, representing 11 nations,
recommended a series of research goals designed
to promote an interdisciplinary program focused on
the study of the seagrass biome (McRoy, 1973). Supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation, International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE),
the workshop was stimulated by the long-held view
of the important ecological role of seagrasses based
on fisheries research in Denmark late in the 1800s
(Peterson, 1915), and led to coordinated research
projects in the U.S., Central America, Europe, Asia,
and Australia. The IDOE Seagrass Ecosystem Study
educated many graduate students, supported national and international research projects, and resulted in several textbooks (e.g. McRoy and Helfferich, 1977; Phillips and McRoy, 1980), a growing
list of workshops (Boudouresque et al., 1984, 1989)
and publications that fueled continuing expansion of
seagrass related studies (Larkum et al., 1989; Duarte
1999; Hemminga and Duarte, 2000; Short and Coles,
2001; Green and Short, 2003).
Seagrass scientists began meeting in regular organized forums entitled International Seagrass Biology Workshops starting in 1993. Many of the developing nations represented at these meetings had
no formal seagrass conservation programs and were
prime candidates for initiating a global effort. The
first workshop was held in Kominato Marine Laboratory (University of Tokyo), Japan in 1993 with scientists from several countries attending (Aioi, 1993).
The meetings that followed (Rottnest Island, Western
Australia; Manila, The Philippines; Corsica, France,
Ensenada, Mexico and Townesville, Australia) included proceedings describing the current state of
the science (Kuo et al., 1996; Duarte and Fortes,
1999; Pergent et al., 2000; Ibarra-Obando, 2003).
The rapid spread of scientific interest in seagrass
systems resulted in the usual diversification and specialization within an expanding research field. Between 1989 and 1997 the annual seagrass publication rate doubled every four years, yet approximately
90% of the publications were concentrated in only
four marine journals with few in general ecology or
conservation biology (Duarte, 1999). Even though
studies continued to be dominated by descriptive research, the interest in seagrasses expanded into many
disciplines, including synthesis and modeling to the
benefit of conservation biology.
One of the first efforts to formally incorporate
seagrass ecology into a conservation biology context and promote a global cooperative framework
for protecting seagrass biomes took place in Sydney,
Australia at the Society for Conservation Biology
Symposium in 1998 (Special Issue of Pacific Conservation Biology, 2000: 5(4)). This symposium coincided with the heightening of worldwide awareness
for marine biodiversity and included papers covering several aspects of seagrass conservation, from
genetics and population biology to threatened marine herbivores and cultural values.
With these publications and the heightened awareness of the value of seagrasses, scientists, and the
public are recognizing the difficulty in making decisions and implementing policies for coastal management with generic conservation value (Coles and
Fortes, 2001). However, it is true sadly that the seagrass biome continues to suffer from the fact that
mismanagement occurs in many countries because
no group individual or organization has vested interest in the sustainability of the biome, a phenomenon generally identified by Hardin (1968) as
the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’. Seagrasses grow
on submerged lands that are often held in common
trust by a community with limited private ownership and may even cross state, territorial, and international jurisdictions. The effects of policies and activities implemented outside local jurisdictions but
connected by the fluid medium of rivers, estuaries,
and coastal currents can lead to fragmentation or
local extinction of the seagrass biome. Many secondary consumers that migrate between connected
bodies of water rely on seagrass and are especially
vulnerable to the possible lack of uniform control
over practices within the separate locations. Unfortunately, decisions in one jurisdiction may not influence policy in adjacent jurisdictions, but it is critical
W. Judson Kenworthy et al.
chapter emphasizes the need for a conservation biology perspective in seagrass science and the initiation
of research projects guided by the principles of this
discipline.
II. The State of Seagrass Science Relative
to Conservation Biology
While biogeographic and descriptive studies were
done in the early years of seagrass science (Setchell,
1920), publication of ‘The Seagrasses of the World’
(den Hartog, 1970) initiated the modern era of seagrass ecology. Soon after, the first International Seagrass Workshop was held in Leiden, The Netherlands
in October 1973. At this meeting an international body of scientists, representing 11 nations,
recommended a series of research goals designed
to promote an interdisciplinary program focused on
the study of the seagrass biome (McRoy, 1973). Supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation, International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE),
the workshop was stimulated by the long-held view
of the important ecological role of seagrasses based
on fisheries research in Denmark late in the 1800s
(Peterson, 1915), and led to coordinated research
projects in the U.S., Central America, Europe, Asia,
and Australia. The IDOE Seagrass Ecosystem Study
educated many graduate students, supported national and international research projects, and resulted in several textbooks (e.g. McRoy and Helfferich, 1977; Phillips and McRoy, 1980), a growing
list of workshops (Boudouresque et al., 1984, 1989)
and publications that fueled continuing expansion of
seagrass related studies (Larkum et al., 1989; Duarte
1999; Hemminga and Duarte, 2000; Short and Coles,
2001; Green and Short, 2003).
Seagrass scientists began meeting in regular organized forums entitled International Seagrass Biology Workshops starting in 1993. Many of the developing nations represented at these meetings had
no formal seagrass conservation programs and were
prime candidates for initiating a global effort. The
first workshop was held in Kominato Marine Laboratory (University of Tokyo), Japan in 1993 with scientists from several countries attending (Aioi, 1993).
The meetings that followed (Rottnest Island, Western
Australia; Manila, The Philippines; Corsica, France,
Ensenada, Mexico and Townesville, Australia) included proceedings describing the current state of
the science (Kuo et al., 1996; Duarte and Fortes,
1999; Pergent et al., 2000; Ibarra-Obando, 2003).
The rapid spread of scientific interest in seagrass
systems resulted in the usual diversification and specialization within an expanding research field. Between 1989 and 1997 the annual seagrass publication rate doubled every four years, yet approximately
90% of the publications were concentrated in only
four marine journals with few in general ecology or
conservation biology (Duarte, 1999). Even though
studies continued to be dominated by descriptive research, the interest in seagrasses expanded into many
disciplines, including synthesis and modeling to the
benefit of conservation biology.
One of the first efforts to formally incorporate
seagrass ecology into a conservation biology context and promote a global cooperative framework
for protecting seagrass biomes took place in Sydney,
Australia at the Society for Conservation Biology
Symposium in 1998 (Special Issue of Pacific Conservation Biology, 2000: 5(4)). This symposium coincided with the heightening of worldwide awareness
for marine biodiversity and included papers covering several aspects of seagrass conservation, from
genetics and population biology to threatened marine herbivores and cultural values.
With these publications and the heightened awareness of the value of seagrasses, scientists, and the
public are recognizing the difficulty in making decisions and implementing policies for coastal management with generic conservation value (Coles and
Fortes, 2001). However, it is true sadly that the seagrass biome continues to suffer from the fact that
mismanagement occurs in many countries because
no group individual or organization has vested interest in the sustainability of the biome, a phenomenon generally identified by Hardin (1968) as
the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’. Seagrasses grow
on submerged lands that are often held in common
trust by a community with limited private ownership and may even cross state, territorial, and international jurisdictions. The effects of policies and activities implemented outside local jurisdictions but
connected by the fluid medium of rivers, estuaries,
and coastal currents can lead to fragmentation or
local extinction of the seagrass biome. Many secondary consumers that migrate between connected
bodies of water rely on seagrass and are especially
vulnerable to the possible lack of uniform control
over practices within the separate locations. Unfortunately, decisions in one jurisdiction may not influence policy in adjacent jurisdictions, but it is critical