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the first appearance of eukaryotes and cyanobacteria. Nature
455:1101–1104
Rosing MT (1999) 13C-Depleted carbon microparticles in >3700-Ma
sea-floor sedimentary rocks from west Greenland. Science
283:674–676
Sadava D, Heller HC, Orians GH, Purves WK, Hillis DM (2007) Life:
the science of biology, 8th edn. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland
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tinkering with denitrification enzymes. FEBS Lett 341:1–4
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In: Engel MH, Macko SA (eds) Organic geochemistry. Plenum
Press, New York/London, pp 693–695
Schidlowski M (2001) Carbon isotopes as biogeochemical recorders of
life over 3.8 Ga of Earth history: evolution of a concept. Precambrian Res 106:117–134
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new evidence of the antiquity of life. Science 260:640–646
Schopf JW, Kudryavtsev AB, Agresti DG, Wdowiak TJ, Czaja AD
(2002) Laser-Raman imagery of Earth’s earliest fossils. Nature
416:73–76
Schulz HN, Brinkhoff T, Ferdelman TG, Herna ´ndez Marine ´ M, Teske
A, Jørgensen BB (1999) Dense populations of a giant sulfur
bacterium in Namibian shelf sediments. Science 284:493–495
Schwartz RM, Dayhoff MO (1978) Origins of prokaryotes, eukaryotes,
mitochondria, and chloroplasts. Science 199:395–403
Shen Y, Buick R (2004) The antiquity of microbial sulfate reduction.
Earth Sci Rev 64:243–272
Shiflett AM, Johnson PJ (2010) Mitochondrion-related organelles in
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Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1837–1843
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Vargas M, Kashefi K, Blunt-Harris EL, Lovley DR (1998)
Microbiological evidence for Fe(iii) reduction on early Earth.
Nature 395:65–67
Volkman JK (2005) Sterols and other triterpenoids: source
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H, Reisse J (eds) Lectures in astrobiology: vol I. Advances in
astrobiology and biogeophysics. Springer, pp 195–226
Westall F (2011) Early life. In: Gargaud M et al (eds) Origins of life, an
astrobiology perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp 391–413
Westall F, Cavalazzi B (2011) Biosignatures in rocks. In: Thiel V,
Reitner J (eds) Encyclopedia of geobiology. Springer, Berlin,
pp 189–201
Westall F, Folk RL (2003) Exogenous carbonaceous microstructures in
Early Archaean cherts and BIFs from the Isua Greenstone Belt:
implications for the search for life in ancient rocks. Precambrian
Res 126:313–330
Westall F, de Ronde CEJ, Southam G, Grassineau N, Colas M, Cockell
C, Lammer H (2006a) Implications of a 3.472-3.333 Gyr-old subaerial microbial mat from the Barberton greenstone belt, South
Africa for the UV environmental conditions on the early Earth.
Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1857–1875
Westall F et al (2006b) The 3.466 Ga “Kitty’s Gap Chert”, an early
Archean microbial ecosystem. Geol Soc America, special paper
405:105–131
Westall F, Foucher F, Cavalazzi B, de Vries ST, Nijman W, Pearson V,
Watson J, Verchovsky A, Wright I, Rouzaud JN, Marchesini D,
Anne S (2011a) Early life on Earth and Mars: a case study from
~3.5 Ga-old rocks from the Pilbara, Australia. Planet Space Sci
59:1093–1106
Westall F et al (2011b) Implications of in situ calcification for
photosynthesis in a ~3.3 Ga-old microbial biofilm from the
Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa. Earth Planet Sci Lett
310:468–479
Williams BAP, Hirt RP, Lucocq JM, Embley TM (2002) A mitochondrial remnant in the microsporidian trachipleistophora hominis.
Nature 418:865–869
Xiong J, Bauer CE (2002) Complex evolution of photosynthesis.
Annu Rev Plant Biol 53:503–521
106
J.-C. Bertrand et al.
the first appearance of eukaryotes and cyanobacteria. Nature
455:1101–1104
Rosing MT (1999) 13C-Depleted carbon microparticles in >3700-Ma
sea-floor sedimentary rocks from west Greenland. Science
283:674–676
Sadava D, Heller HC, Orians GH, Purves WK, Hillis DM (2007) Life:
the science of biology, 8th edn. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland
Saraste M, Castresana J (1994) Cytochrome oxidase evolved by
tinkering with denitrification enzymes. FEBS Lett 341:1–4
Schidlowski M (1993) The initiation of biological processes on Earth.
In: Engel MH, Macko SA (eds) Organic geochemistry. Plenum
Press, New York/London, pp 693–695
Schidlowski M (2001) Carbon isotopes as biogeochemical recorders of
life over 3.8 Ga of Earth history: evolution of a concept. Precambrian Res 106:117–134
Schopf JW (1993) Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex chert:
new evidence of the antiquity of life. Science 260:640–646
Schopf JW, Kudryavtsev AB, Agresti DG, Wdowiak TJ, Czaja AD
(2002) Laser-Raman imagery of Earth’s earliest fossils. Nature
416:73–76
Schulz HN, Brinkhoff T, Ferdelman TG, Herna ´ndez Marine ´ M, Teske
A, Jørgensen BB (1999) Dense populations of a giant sulfur
bacterium in Namibian shelf sediments. Science 284:493–495
Schwartz RM, Dayhoff MO (1978) Origins of prokaryotes, eukaryotes,
mitochondria, and chloroplasts. Science 199:395–403
Shen Y, Buick R (2004) The antiquity of microbial sulfate reduction.
Earth Sci Rev 64:243–272
Shiflett AM, Johnson PJ (2010) Mitochondrion-related organelles in
eukaryotic protists. Annu Rev Microbiol 64:409–429
Stetter KO (2006) Hyperthermophiles in the history of life. Philos
Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1837–1843
Sugitani K, Grey K, Nagoaka T, Mimura K, Walter M (2009) Taxonomy
and biogenicity of Archaean spheroidal microfossils (ca. 3.0 Ga)
from the Mount Goldsworthy-Mount Grant area in the northwestern
Pilbara Craton, Western Australia. Precambrian Res 173:50–59
Summons RE, Jahnke LL, Hope JM, Logan GA (1999)
2-Methylhopanoids as biomarkers for cyanobacterial oxygenic
photosynthesis. Nature 400:554–557
Van den Boorn S, Van Bergen MJ, Nijman W, Vroon PZ (2007) Dual
role of seawater and hydrothermal fluids in Early Archean chert
formation: evidence from silicon isotopes. Geology 35:939–942
Vargas M, Kashefi K, Blunt-Harris EL, Lovley DR (1998)
Microbiological evidence for Fe(iii) reduction on early Earth.
Nature 395:65–67
Volkman JK (2005) Sterols and other triterpenoids: source
specificity and evolution of biosynthetic pathways. Org Geochem
36:139–159
Westall F (2005) The geological context for the origin of life and the
mineral signatures of fossil life. In: Gargaud M, Barbier B, Martin
H, Reisse J (eds) Lectures in astrobiology: vol I. Advances in
astrobiology and biogeophysics. Springer, pp 195–226
Westall F (2011) Early life. In: Gargaud M et al (eds) Origins of life, an
astrobiology perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp 391–413
Westall F, Cavalazzi B (2011) Biosignatures in rocks. In: Thiel V,
Reitner J (eds) Encyclopedia of geobiology. Springer, Berlin,
pp 189–201
Westall F, Folk RL (2003) Exogenous carbonaceous microstructures in
Early Archaean cherts and BIFs from the Isua Greenstone Belt:
implications for the search for life in ancient rocks. Precambrian
Res 126:313–330
Westall F, de Ronde CEJ, Southam G, Grassineau N, Colas M, Cockell
C, Lammer H (2006a) Implications of a 3.472-3.333 Gyr-old subaerial microbial mat from the Barberton greenstone belt, South
Africa for the UV environmental conditions on the early Earth.
Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361:1857–1875
Westall F et al (2006b) The 3.466 Ga “Kitty’s Gap Chert”, an early
Archean microbial ecosystem. Geol Soc America, special paper
405:105–131
Westall F, Foucher F, Cavalazzi B, de Vries ST, Nijman W, Pearson V,
Watson J, Verchovsky A, Wright I, Rouzaud JN, Marchesini D,
Anne S (2011a) Early life on Earth and Mars: a case study from
~3.5 Ga-old rocks from the Pilbara, Australia. Planet Space Sci
59:1093–1106
Westall F et al (2011b) Implications of in situ calcification for
photosynthesis in a ~3.3 Ga-old microbial biofilm from the
Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa. Earth Planet Sci Lett
310:468–479
Williams BAP, Hirt RP, Lucocq JM, Embley TM (2002) A mitochondrial remnant in the microsporidian trachipleistophora hominis.
Nature 418:865–869
Xiong J, Bauer CE (2002) Complex evolution of photosynthesis.
Annu Rev Plant Biol 53:503–521
106
J.-C. Bertrand et al.