algae that bore into coral skeletons have also been shown
to increase dramatically under elevated CO 2 conditions
(Tribollet et al., 2009). Decreased calcium carbonate production and increased erosion is likely to reduce architectural complexity of a reef (Alvarez-Filip et al., 2009), and
thus may affect reef biodiversity.
Other effects of ocean acidification on coral reefs
Ocean acidification causes a suite of changes in the carbonate system in seawater, and some of those changes
affect other physiological processes in reef organisms.
Some corals and coralline algae have been shown to
bleach at lower temperature thresholds under lowered
pH conditions (Anthony et al., 2008). The olfactory senses
of larval orange clownfish Amphiprion percula were
impaired under lowered pH conditions, which affected
their homing ability (Munday et al., 2009). Some organisms, however, may benefit from ocean acidification.
Seagrasses, for example, have been shown to increase
growth rates from CO 2 -fertilization (Palacios and
Zimmerman, 2007).
Summary
Ocean acidification, a consequence of the ocean’s
increased absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere, causes
shifts in multiple components of the carbonate system in
seawater. One of the best-known impacts of ocean acidification on coral reefs is the reduced rate of calcification in
corals and coralline algae. Calcification rates of both
groups are expected to decrease significantly with further
increases in atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, and dissolution of reef rock and sediments will increase. The direct
effects of ocean acidification on organism survival and
ecosystem functioning are not well known, but loss of reef
habitat and architectural complexity are expected outcomes. Findings from multiple fields of study (paleontology, paleoecology, chemical oceanography, biochemistry,
isotope geochemistry, etc.) suggest that ocean acidification will lead to decreased calcium carbonate production,
a shift from reef-building toward reef destruction, and
reduced biodiversity of reef ecosystems.
Bibliography
Albright, R., Mason, B., and Langdon, C., 2008. Effect of aragonite
saturation state on settlement and post-settlement growth of
Porites astreoides larvae. Coral Reefs, 27, 485–490.
Alvarez-Filip, L., Dulvy, N. K., Gill, J. A., Côte, I. M., and
Watkinson, A. R., 2009. Flattening of Caribbean coral reefs:
region-wide declines in architectural complexity. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences,
doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0339.
Andersson, A. J., Bates, N. R., and Mackenzie, F. T., 2007. Dissolution of carbonate sediments under rising pCO 2 and ocean acidification: observations from Devil’s Hole, Bermuda. Aquatic
Geochemistry, 13, 237–264.
Anthony, K. R. N., Kline, D. I., Diaz-Pulido, G., Dove, S., and
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 2008. Ocean acidification causes
bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 105, 17442–17446.
Boyer, T. P., Antonov, J. I., Garcia, H. E., Johnson, D. R., Locarnini,
R. A., Mishonov, A. V., Pitcher, M. T., Baranova, O. K., and
Smolyar, I. V., 2006. World Ocean Database 2005. In Levitus,
S. (ed.), NOAA Atlas NESDIS 60. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
De’ath, G., Lough, J. M., and Fabricius, K. E., 2009. Declining
coral calcification on the Great Barrier Reef. Science, 323,
116–119.
Fine, M., and Tchernov, D., 2007. Scleractinian coral species survive and recover from decalcification. Science, 315, 1811.
Hall-Spencer, J. M., Rodolfo-Metalpa, R., Martin, S., Ransome, E.,
Fine, M., Turner, S. M., et al., 2008. Volcanic carbon dioxide
vents show ecosystem effects of ocean acidification. Nature,
454, 96–99.
Jokiel, P. L., Rodgers, K. S., Kuffner, I. B., Andersson, A. J., Cox, E. F.,
and Mackenzie, F. T., 2008. Ocean acidification and calcifying
reef organisms: a mesocosm investigation. Coral Reefs, 27,
473–483.
Kleypas, J. A., Buddemeier, R. W., and Gattuso, J. P., 2001. The
future of coral reefs in an age of global change. International
Journal of Earth Sciences, 90, 426–437.
Kleypas, J. A., and Langdon, C., 2006. Coral reefs and changing
seawater chemistry. In Phinney, J. T., Hoegh-Guldberg, O.,
Kleypas, J., Skirving, W., and Strong, A. (eds.), Coral Reefs
and Climate Change: Science and Management. Washington
DC: American Geophysical Union, Vol. 61, pp. 73–110.
Knoll, A. H., Bambach, R. K., Payne, J. L., Pruss, S., and Fischer,
W. W., 2007. Paleophysiology and end-Permian mass extinction.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 256, 295–313.
Kuffner, I. B., Andersson, A. J., Jokiel, P. L., Rodgers, K. S.,
and Mackenzie, F. T., 2008. Decreased abundance of crustose
coralline algae due to ocean acidification. Nature Geoscience,
1, 77–140.
Langdon, C., and Atkinson, M. J., 2005. Effect of elevated pCO 2 on
photosynthesis and calcification of corals and interactions with
seasonal change in temperature/irradiance and nutrient enrichment. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 110, C09S07,
doi:10.1029/2004JC002576.
Manzello, D. P., Kleypas, J. A., Budd, D. A., Eakin, C. M., Glynn,
P. W., and Langdon, C., 2008. Poorly cemented coral reefs
of the eastern tropical Pacific: Possible insights into reef
development in a high-CO 2 world. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105,
10450–10455.
Morse, J. W., Andersson, A. J., and Mackenzie, F. T., 2006. Initial
responses of carbonate-rich shelf sediments to rising atmospheric pCO 2 and “ocean acidification”: role of high Mg-calcites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 70, 5814–5830.
Munday, P. L., Dixson, D. L., Donelson, J. M., Jones, G. P.,
Pratchett, M. S., Devitsina, G. V., and Døving, K. B., 2009.
Ocean acidification impairs olfactory discrimination and homing
ability of a marine fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, United States of America, 106, 1848 –1852.
Murray, J., and Renard, A. F., 1891. Report on deep-sea deposits.
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873–76. Edinburgh: Neill and Co.,
520 p.
Palacios, S. L., and Zimmerman, R. C., 2007. Response of eelgrass
Zostera marina to CO 2 enrichment: possible impacts of climate
change and potential for remediation of coastal habitats. Marine
Ecology – Progress Series, 344, 1–13.
Sabine, C. L., Key, R. M., Kozyr, A., Feely, R. A., Wanninkhof, R.,
Millero, F. J., Peng, T.-H., Bullister, J. L., and Lee, K., 2005.
Global Ocean Data Analysis Project: Results and Data.
Oak Ridge, TN: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center,
736
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION, EFFECTS ON CALCIFICATION
to increase dramatically under elevated CO 2 conditions
(Tribollet et al., 2009). Decreased calcium carbonate production and increased erosion is likely to reduce architectural complexity of a reef (Alvarez-Filip et al., 2009), and
thus may affect reef biodiversity.
Other effects of ocean acidification on coral reefs
Ocean acidification causes a suite of changes in the carbonate system in seawater, and some of those changes
affect other physiological processes in reef organisms.
Some corals and coralline algae have been shown to
bleach at lower temperature thresholds under lowered
pH conditions (Anthony et al., 2008). The olfactory senses
of larval orange clownfish Amphiprion percula were
impaired under lowered pH conditions, which affected
their homing ability (Munday et al., 2009). Some organisms, however, may benefit from ocean acidification.
Seagrasses, for example, have been shown to increase
growth rates from CO 2 -fertilization (Palacios and
Zimmerman, 2007).
Summary
Ocean acidification, a consequence of the ocean’s
increased absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere, causes
shifts in multiple components of the carbonate system in
seawater. One of the best-known impacts of ocean acidification on coral reefs is the reduced rate of calcification in
corals and coralline algae. Calcification rates of both
groups are expected to decrease significantly with further
increases in atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, and dissolution of reef rock and sediments will increase. The direct
effects of ocean acidification on organism survival and
ecosystem functioning are not well known, but loss of reef
habitat and architectural complexity are expected outcomes. Findings from multiple fields of study (paleontology, paleoecology, chemical oceanography, biochemistry,
isotope geochemistry, etc.) suggest that ocean acidification will lead to decreased calcium carbonate production,
a shift from reef-building toward reef destruction, and
reduced biodiversity of reef ecosystems.
Bibliography
Albright, R., Mason, B., and Langdon, C., 2008. Effect of aragonite
saturation state on settlement and post-settlement growth of
Porites astreoides larvae. Coral Reefs, 27, 485–490.
Alvarez-Filip, L., Dulvy, N. K., Gill, J. A., Côte, I. M., and
Watkinson, A. R., 2009. Flattening of Caribbean coral reefs:
region-wide declines in architectural complexity. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences,
doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0339.
Andersson, A. J., Bates, N. R., and Mackenzie, F. T., 2007. Dissolution of carbonate sediments under rising pCO 2 and ocean acidification: observations from Devil’s Hole, Bermuda. Aquatic
Geochemistry, 13, 237–264.
Anthony, K. R. N., Kline, D. I., Diaz-Pulido, G., Dove, S., and
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 2008. Ocean acidification causes
bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 105, 17442–17446.
Boyer, T. P., Antonov, J. I., Garcia, H. E., Johnson, D. R., Locarnini,
R. A., Mishonov, A. V., Pitcher, M. T., Baranova, O. K., and
Smolyar, I. V., 2006. World Ocean Database 2005. In Levitus,
S. (ed.), NOAA Atlas NESDIS 60. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
De’ath, G., Lough, J. M., and Fabricius, K. E., 2009. Declining
coral calcification on the Great Barrier Reef. Science, 323,
116–119.
Fine, M., and Tchernov, D., 2007. Scleractinian coral species survive and recover from decalcification. Science, 315, 1811.
Hall-Spencer, J. M., Rodolfo-Metalpa, R., Martin, S., Ransome, E.,
Fine, M., Turner, S. M., et al., 2008. Volcanic carbon dioxide
vents show ecosystem effects of ocean acidification. Nature,
454, 96–99.
Jokiel, P. L., Rodgers, K. S., Kuffner, I. B., Andersson, A. J., Cox, E. F.,
and Mackenzie, F. T., 2008. Ocean acidification and calcifying
reef organisms: a mesocosm investigation. Coral Reefs, 27,
473–483.
Kleypas, J. A., Buddemeier, R. W., and Gattuso, J. P., 2001. The
future of coral reefs in an age of global change. International
Journal of Earth Sciences, 90, 426–437.
Kleypas, J. A., and Langdon, C., 2006. Coral reefs and changing
seawater chemistry. In Phinney, J. T., Hoegh-Guldberg, O.,
Kleypas, J., Skirving, W., and Strong, A. (eds.), Coral Reefs
and Climate Change: Science and Management. Washington
DC: American Geophysical Union, Vol. 61, pp. 73–110.
Knoll, A. H., Bambach, R. K., Payne, J. L., Pruss, S., and Fischer,
W. W., 2007. Paleophysiology and end-Permian mass extinction.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 256, 295–313.
Kuffner, I. B., Andersson, A. J., Jokiel, P. L., Rodgers, K. S.,
and Mackenzie, F. T., 2008. Decreased abundance of crustose
coralline algae due to ocean acidification. Nature Geoscience,
1, 77–140.
Langdon, C., and Atkinson, M. J., 2005. Effect of elevated pCO 2 on
photosynthesis and calcification of corals and interactions with
seasonal change in temperature/irradiance and nutrient enrichment. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 110, C09S07,
doi:10.1029/2004JC002576.
Manzello, D. P., Kleypas, J. A., Budd, D. A., Eakin, C. M., Glynn,
P. W., and Langdon, C., 2008. Poorly cemented coral reefs
of the eastern tropical Pacific: Possible insights into reef
development in a high-CO 2 world. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105,
10450–10455.
Morse, J. W., Andersson, A. J., and Mackenzie, F. T., 2006. Initial
responses of carbonate-rich shelf sediments to rising atmospheric pCO 2 and “ocean acidification”: role of high Mg-calcites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 70, 5814–5830.
Munday, P. L., Dixson, D. L., Donelson, J. M., Jones, G. P.,
Pratchett, M. S., Devitsina, G. V., and Døving, K. B., 2009.
Ocean acidification impairs olfactory discrimination and homing
ability of a marine fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, United States of America, 106, 1848 –1852.
Murray, J., and Renard, A. F., 1891. Report on deep-sea deposits.
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873–76. Edinburgh: Neill and Co.,
520 p.
Palacios, S. L., and Zimmerman, R. C., 2007. Response of eelgrass
Zostera marina to CO 2 enrichment: possible impacts of climate
change and potential for remediation of coastal habitats. Marine
Ecology – Progress Series, 344, 1–13.
Sabine, C. L., Key, R. M., Kozyr, A., Feely, R. A., Wanninkhof, R.,
Millero, F. J., Peng, T.-H., Bullister, J. L., and Lee, K., 2005.
Global Ocean Data Analysis Project: Results and Data.
Oak Ridge, TN: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center,
736
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION, EFFECTS ON CALCIFICATION