CLIMAP Project Members, 1981. Seasonal reconstructions of the
earth’s surface at the Last Glacial Maximum. In Geological
Society of America, Map Chart Series, MC-36. Boulder: Geological Society of America, pp.1–18.
DeDeckker, P., and Yokoyama, Y., 2009. Micropaleontological evidence for Late Quaternary sea-level changes in Bonaparte Gulf,
Australia. Global and Planetary Change, 66, 85–92.
Fairbanks, R. G., 1989. A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic sea level
record: influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas
event and deep-ocean circulation. Nature, 342, 637–642.
Ferland, M. A., Roy, P. S., and Murray-Wallace, C. V., 1995. Glacial
lowstand deposits on the outer continental shelf of Southeastern
Australia. Quaternary Research, 44, 294–299.
Fleming, K., Johnston, P., Zwartz, D., Yokoyama, Y., Lambeck, K.,
and Chappell, J., 1998. Refining the eustatic sea-level curve
since the Last Glacial Maximum using far- and intermediatefield sites. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 163, 327–342.
Hanebuth, T. J. J., Stattegger, K., and Bojanowski, A., 2009. Termination of the Last Glacial Maximum sea-level lowstand: the
Sunda-Shelf data revisited. Global and Planetary Change, 66,
76–84.
Hanebuth, T., Stattegger, K., and Grootes, P. M., 2000. Rapid
flooding of the Sunda Shelf: a late-glacial sea-level record.
Science, 288, 1033–1035.
Lambeck, K., Yokoyama, Y., and Purcell, T., 2002. Into and out of
the Last Glacial Maximum: sea-level change during Oxygen
Isotope Stage 3 and 2. Quaternary Science Reviews, 21, 343–
360.
Marshall, J. F., and Thom, B. G., 1976. The sea-level in the last
interglacial. Nature, 263, 120–121.
Milne, G. A., Mitrovica, J. X., and Schrag, D. P., 2002. Estimating
past continental ice volume from sea-level data. Quaternary
Science Reviews, 21, 361–376.
Mitrovica, J. X., 2003. Recent controversies in predicting postglacial sea-level change. Quaternary Science Reviews, 22,
127–133.
Mix, A. C., Bard, E., and Schneider, R., 2001. Environmental processes of the ice age: land, ocean, glaciers (EPILOG). Quaternary Science Reviews, 20, 627–657.
Nakada, M., and Lambeck, K., 1988. The melting history of the
Late Pleistocene Antarctic ice sheet. Nature, 333, 36–40.
Peltier, W. R., 1994. Ice age paleotopography. Science, 265, 195–
201.
Stirling, C. H., Esat, T. M., Lambeck, K., McCulloch, M. T., 1998.
Timing and duration of the Last Interglacial: evidence for
a restricted interval of widespread coral growth. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 160, 745–762.
van Andel, T. H., and Veevers, J. J., 1967. Morphology and Sediments of the Timor Sea. Canberra: Department of National
Development, Bureau of Mineral Resources Geology and
Geophysics.
Yokoyama, Y., DeDeckker, P., Lambeck, K., Johnston, P., and
Fifield, L. K., 2001a. Sea-level at the Last Glacial Maximum:
evidence from northwestern Australia to constrain ice volumes
for oxygen isotope stage 2. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 165, 281–297.
Yokoyama, Y., Lambeck, K., DeDeckker, P., Johnston, P., and
Fifield, L. K., 2000. Timing of the Last Glacial Maximum from
observed sea-level minima. Nature, 406, 713–716.
Yokoyama, Y., Purcell, A., Lambeck, K., and Johnston, P., 2001b.
Shore-line reconstruction around Australia during the Last Glacial Maximum and Late Glacial Stage. Quaternary International, 83/85, 9–18.
Yokoyama, Y., Purcell, A., Marshall, J. F., and Lambeck, K., 2006.
Sea-level during the early deglaciation period in the Great
Barrier Reef, Australia. Global and Planetary Change, 53,
147–153.
Cross-references
Barbados
Glacial Control Hypothesis
Glacio-Hydro Isostasy
Great Barrier Reef: Origin, Evolution, and Modern Development
Last Glacial Interstadials
Last Interglacial and Reef Development
Postglacial Trangression
Sea Level Change and Its Effect on Reef Growth
Submerged Reefs
LAST INTERGLACIAL AND REEF DEVELOPMENT
Paul Blanchon
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Cancun,
Mexico
Introduction
The last Interglaciation (LIG), defined by half-peak
heights in the marine oxygen isotope record, is centered
around 125 ka ago and was the last time global ice-volume
was at a minimum and sea levels were higher than present
(Martinson et al., 1987). The highstand of sea level (SL),
which occurred within the LIG, correlates with marine isotope stage (MIS) 5e and overlaps with warm terrestrial
stages such as the Eemian, Sangamonian, and Ipswichian
(Shackleton et al., 2003). The precise timing of the
highstand is based on radiometric dating of SL indicators
such as fossil-reef corals and speleothems in stable areas,
but there is still uncertainty regarding the reliability of its
bounding ages (Edwards et al., 1987; Chen et al., 1991;
Szabo et al., 1994; Stirling et al., 1998; Esat et al., 1999;
but see Cheng et al., 2009).
In terms of climate, the LIG highstand was a time of
unprecedented warmth which led to significant northward
expansion of temperate biota. Animals such as hippopotamus were recorded in central and northern Europe for the
first and perhaps only time in the last 500 ka (e.g.,
Schreve, 2009). These dramatic shifts in biota largely
resulted from the polar amplification of warming. In the
Northern Hemisphere, average summer insolation was
11% above the present between 130 and 127 ka (CAPE,
2006). This led to a rapid, early deglaciation and intensification of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation,
which combined to melt sea-ice, permafrost, and almost
all glaciers, allowing a vast expansion of the boreal forest
to the shores of the Arctic Ocean (CAPE, 2006). The positive feedback resulting from vegetation-induced changes
in albedo amplified Arctic summer temperatures, which
climbed to an average of 5
above the present (Chapin
et al., 2005). Such high temperatures led to the complete
disappearance of the south dome of the Greenland ice
sheet and to a loss of almost half of its present-day volume,
leading to significantly higher SL (Cuffey and Marshall,
2000; Otto-Bliesner et al., 2006).
These elevated temperatures, together with the smaller
latitudinal temperature gradient, also led to more
LAST INTERGLACIAL AND REEF DEVELOPMENT
621
earth’s surface at the Last Glacial Maximum. In Geological
Society of America, Map Chart Series, MC-36. Boulder: Geological Society of America, pp.1–18.
DeDeckker, P., and Yokoyama, Y., 2009. Micropaleontological evidence for Late Quaternary sea-level changes in Bonaparte Gulf,
Australia. Global and Planetary Change, 66, 85–92.
Fairbanks, R. G., 1989. A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic sea level
record: influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas
event and deep-ocean circulation. Nature, 342, 637–642.
Ferland, M. A., Roy, P. S., and Murray-Wallace, C. V., 1995. Glacial
lowstand deposits on the outer continental shelf of Southeastern
Australia. Quaternary Research, 44, 294–299.
Fleming, K., Johnston, P., Zwartz, D., Yokoyama, Y., Lambeck, K.,
and Chappell, J., 1998. Refining the eustatic sea-level curve
since the Last Glacial Maximum using far- and intermediatefield sites. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 163, 327–342.
Hanebuth, T. J. J., Stattegger, K., and Bojanowski, A., 2009. Termination of the Last Glacial Maximum sea-level lowstand: the
Sunda-Shelf data revisited. Global and Planetary Change, 66,
76–84.
Hanebuth, T., Stattegger, K., and Grootes, P. M., 2000. Rapid
flooding of the Sunda Shelf: a late-glacial sea-level record.
Science, 288, 1033–1035.
Lambeck, K., Yokoyama, Y., and Purcell, T., 2002. Into and out of
the Last Glacial Maximum: sea-level change during Oxygen
Isotope Stage 3 and 2. Quaternary Science Reviews, 21, 343–
360.
Marshall, J. F., and Thom, B. G., 1976. The sea-level in the last
interglacial. Nature, 263, 120–121.
Milne, G. A., Mitrovica, J. X., and Schrag, D. P., 2002. Estimating
past continental ice volume from sea-level data. Quaternary
Science Reviews, 21, 361–376.
Mitrovica, J. X., 2003. Recent controversies in predicting postglacial sea-level change. Quaternary Science Reviews, 22,
127–133.
Mix, A. C., Bard, E., and Schneider, R., 2001. Environmental processes of the ice age: land, ocean, glaciers (EPILOG). Quaternary Science Reviews, 20, 627–657.
Nakada, M., and Lambeck, K., 1988. The melting history of the
Late Pleistocene Antarctic ice sheet. Nature, 333, 36–40.
Peltier, W. R., 1994. Ice age paleotopography. Science, 265, 195–
201.
Stirling, C. H., Esat, T. M., Lambeck, K., McCulloch, M. T., 1998.
Timing and duration of the Last Interglacial: evidence for
a restricted interval of widespread coral growth. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 160, 745–762.
van Andel, T. H., and Veevers, J. J., 1967. Morphology and Sediments of the Timor Sea. Canberra: Department of National
Development, Bureau of Mineral Resources Geology and
Geophysics.
Yokoyama, Y., DeDeckker, P., Lambeck, K., Johnston, P., and
Fifield, L. K., 2001a. Sea-level at the Last Glacial Maximum:
evidence from northwestern Australia to constrain ice volumes
for oxygen isotope stage 2. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 165, 281–297.
Yokoyama, Y., Lambeck, K., DeDeckker, P., Johnston, P., and
Fifield, L. K., 2000. Timing of the Last Glacial Maximum from
observed sea-level minima. Nature, 406, 713–716.
Yokoyama, Y., Purcell, A., Lambeck, K., and Johnston, P., 2001b.
Shore-line reconstruction around Australia during the Last Glacial Maximum and Late Glacial Stage. Quaternary International, 83/85, 9–18.
Yokoyama, Y., Purcell, A., Marshall, J. F., and Lambeck, K., 2006.
Sea-level during the early deglaciation period in the Great
Barrier Reef, Australia. Global and Planetary Change, 53,
147–153.
Cross-references
Barbados
Glacial Control Hypothesis
Glacio-Hydro Isostasy
Great Barrier Reef: Origin, Evolution, and Modern Development
Last Glacial Interstadials
Last Interglacial and Reef Development
Postglacial Trangression
Sea Level Change and Its Effect on Reef Growth
Submerged Reefs
LAST INTERGLACIAL AND REEF DEVELOPMENT
Paul Blanchon
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Cancun,
Mexico
Introduction
The last Interglaciation (LIG), defined by half-peak
heights in the marine oxygen isotope record, is centered
around 125 ka ago and was the last time global ice-volume
was at a minimum and sea levels were higher than present
(Martinson et al., 1987). The highstand of sea level (SL),
which occurred within the LIG, correlates with marine isotope stage (MIS) 5e and overlaps with warm terrestrial
stages such as the Eemian, Sangamonian, and Ipswichian
(Shackleton et al., 2003). The precise timing of the
highstand is based on radiometric dating of SL indicators
such as fossil-reef corals and speleothems in stable areas,
but there is still uncertainty regarding the reliability of its
bounding ages (Edwards et al., 1987; Chen et al., 1991;
Szabo et al., 1994; Stirling et al., 1998; Esat et al., 1999;
but see Cheng et al., 2009).
In terms of climate, the LIG highstand was a time of
unprecedented warmth which led to significant northward
expansion of temperate biota. Animals such as hippopotamus were recorded in central and northern Europe for the
first and perhaps only time in the last 500 ka (e.g.,
Schreve, 2009). These dramatic shifts in biota largely
resulted from the polar amplification of warming. In the
Northern Hemisphere, average summer insolation was
11% above the present between 130 and 127 ka (CAPE,
2006). This led to a rapid, early deglaciation and intensification of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation,
which combined to melt sea-ice, permafrost, and almost
all glaciers, allowing a vast expansion of the boreal forest
to the shores of the Arctic Ocean (CAPE, 2006). The positive feedback resulting from vegetation-induced changes
in albedo amplified Arctic summer temperatures, which
climbed to an average of 5
above the present (Chapin
et al., 2005). Such high temperatures led to the complete
disappearance of the south dome of the Greenland ice
sheet and to a loss of almost half of its present-day volume,
leading to significantly higher SL (Cuffey and Marshall,
2000; Otto-Bliesner et al., 2006).
These elevated temperatures, together with the smaller
latitudinal temperature gradient, also led to more
LAST INTERGLACIAL AND REEF DEVELOPMENT
621