Nelson, J. E., and Ginsburg, R. N., 1986. Calcium carbonate production by epibionts on Thalassia in Florida Bay. Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, 56, 622–628.
Perry, C. T., 2005. Structure and development of detrital reef
deposits in turbid nearshore environments, Inhaca Island,
Mozambique. Marine Geology, 214, 143–161.
Perry, C. T., 1999. Reef framework preservation in four contrasting
modern reef environments, Discovery Bay, Jamaica. Journal of
Coastal Research, 15, 796–812.
Perry, C. T., and Beavington-Penney, S. J., 2005. Epiphytic calcium
carbonate production and facies development within subtropical seagrass beds, Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Sedimentary
Geology, 174, 161–176.
Perry, C. T., and Hepburn, L. J., 2008. Syn-depositional alteration of
coral reef framework through bioerosion, encrustation and
cementation: taphonomic signatures of reef accretion and reef
depositional events. Earth Science Reviews, 86, 106–144.
Perry, C. T., Spencer, T., and Kench, P., 2008. Carbonate budgets
and reef production states: a geomorphic perspective on the ecological phase-shift concept. Coral Reefs, 27, 853–866.
Riegl, B., and Piller, W., 2000. Reefs and coral carpets in the northern Red Sea as models for organism-environment feedback in
coral communities and its reflection in growth fabrics. In:
Insalaco, E., Skelton, P., and Palmer, T.,(eds.), Carbonate Platform Systems: components and interactions. London: Geological Society, Special Publications, Vol. 178, pp. 71–88.
Scoffin, T., 1992. Taphonomy of coral reefs: a review. Coral Reefs,
11, 57–77.
Scoffin, T. P., Stearn, C. W., Boucher, D., Frydl, P., Hawkins, C. M.,
Hunter, I. G., and MacGeachy, J. K., 1980. Calcium carbonate
budget of a fringing reef on the west coast of Barbados. I. erosion, sediments and internal structure. Bulletin of Marine Science, 30, 475–508.
Smith, S. V., and Kinsey, D. W., 1976. Calcium carbonate production, coral reef growth, and sea level change. Science, 194,
937–939.
Smithers, S. G., and Larcombe, P., 2003. Late Holocene initiation
and growth of a nearshore turbid-zone coral reef: Paluma Shoals,
central Great Barrier Reef. Australia. Coral Reefs, 22, 499–505.
Smithers, S. G., Hopley, D., and Parnell, K. E., 2006. Fringing and
nearshore coral reefs of the Great Barrier Reef: episodic Holocene development and future prospects. Journal of Coastal
Research, 22, 175–187.
Toscano, M. A., and Macintyre, I. G., 2003. Corrected western
Atlantic sea-level curve for the last 11,000 years based on calibrated
14 C dates from Acropora palmata and mangrove intertidal
peat. Coral Reefs, 22, 257–270.
Tudhope, A., and Scoffin, T. P., 1994. Growth and structure of fringing reefs in a muddy environment, South Thailand. Journal of
Sedimentary Research, A, 64, 752–764.
Vecsei, A., 2004. A new estimate of global reefal carbonate production including the fore-reefs. Global and Planetary Change, 43,
1–18.
Cross-references
Bioerosion
Corals: Biology, Skeletal Deposition, and Reef-Building
Density and Porosity: Influence on Reef Accretion Rates
Floatstone
Framestone
Packstone
Rudstone
Sea Level Change and Its Effect on Reef Growth
Submarine Lithification
Taphonomy
CARBONIFEROUS REEFS
Markus Aretz
Université de Toulouse (UPS), Toulouse, France
Definition
All reefs, which formed during the Carboniferous period
(ca. 359–299 Ma). The Carboniferous is the longest
period of the Phanerozoic Eon. It was named after the
abundance of Coal-bearing strata in its upper half.
Although the geological perspective has to be considered, the Carboniferous period shows considerable overlap to modern times. Reefs formed during times of
profound global changes – greenhouse to icehouse
climates, dramatically changed continent configuration
during the process of supercontinent formation, and important and frequent sea level changes to name only
a few of them. Timing and duration of reef development
and their dimensions varied considerably on a regional
scale, but on the global scale reefs developed throughout
the entire Carboniferous period (Aretz and Vachard,
2007). Overall reef abundance was more common than
what has been often postulated, but lower compared to
peak times of reef development in the Middle Palaeozoic
(Webb, 2002).
Characteristic is the lack of a stable reef community.
A broad range of bioconstructors – microbial communities, calcareous and siliceous sponges, rugose and tabulate
corals, bryozoans, brachiopods, and calcareous algae –
contributed in varying abundances to different stage of
reef development (as initiation, formation, stabilization,
and domination). However, microbial communities were
very abundant and crucial for many Carboniferous reefs.
Reefs occurred along a bathymetric gradient from the
intertidal/subtidal interface to several hundred meters of
depth. Very different reef types developed from small
undifferentiated patch-reefs to atoll reefs on oceanic sea
mounts to reef tracts along shelf margins. The scarcity of
the latter had an important influence on the geometry of
many Carboniferous shelf systems.
Individual reef development reflects the local and/or
regional tectono-sedimentary environments, but climate
seems to be the most important global driving force.
Major re-organisations in the reef environments occurred
at the base of the Carboniferous, around the MidCarboniferous boundary, and at the base of the latest
Carboniferous.
The oldest reefs are shallow water microbial reefs near
the base of the Carboniferous in Eastern Australia. Muddominated mounds and buildups often labeled as
Waulsortian Mounds developed in deeper ramp settings
of many tropical and subtropical shelf systems of Early
Carboniferous age. Often they rose into the photic zone,
which resulted in a marked biodiversity increase in the
vertical profile of the individual mound. Contemporaneous
reefs in shallow waters formed by the above mentioned
190
CARBONIFEROUS REEFS
Sedimentary Petrology, 56, 622–628.
Perry, C. T., 2005. Structure and development of detrital reef
deposits in turbid nearshore environments, Inhaca Island,
Mozambique. Marine Geology, 214, 143–161.
Perry, C. T., 1999. Reef framework preservation in four contrasting
modern reef environments, Discovery Bay, Jamaica. Journal of
Coastal Research, 15, 796–812.
Perry, C. T., and Beavington-Penney, S. J., 2005. Epiphytic calcium
carbonate production and facies development within subtropical seagrass beds, Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Sedimentary
Geology, 174, 161–176.
Perry, C. T., and Hepburn, L. J., 2008. Syn-depositional alteration of
coral reef framework through bioerosion, encrustation and
cementation: taphonomic signatures of reef accretion and reef
depositional events. Earth Science Reviews, 86, 106–144.
Perry, C. T., Spencer, T., and Kench, P., 2008. Carbonate budgets
and reef production states: a geomorphic perspective on the ecological phase-shift concept. Coral Reefs, 27, 853–866.
Riegl, B., and Piller, W., 2000. Reefs and coral carpets in the northern Red Sea as models for organism-environment feedback in
coral communities and its reflection in growth fabrics. In:
Insalaco, E., Skelton, P., and Palmer, T.,(eds.), Carbonate Platform Systems: components and interactions. London: Geological Society, Special Publications, Vol. 178, pp. 71–88.
Scoffin, T., 1992. Taphonomy of coral reefs: a review. Coral Reefs,
11, 57–77.
Scoffin, T. P., Stearn, C. W., Boucher, D., Frydl, P., Hawkins, C. M.,
Hunter, I. G., and MacGeachy, J. K., 1980. Calcium carbonate
budget of a fringing reef on the west coast of Barbados. I. erosion, sediments and internal structure. Bulletin of Marine Science, 30, 475–508.
Smith, S. V., and Kinsey, D. W., 1976. Calcium carbonate production, coral reef growth, and sea level change. Science, 194,
937–939.
Smithers, S. G., and Larcombe, P., 2003. Late Holocene initiation
and growth of a nearshore turbid-zone coral reef: Paluma Shoals,
central Great Barrier Reef. Australia. Coral Reefs, 22, 499–505.
Smithers, S. G., Hopley, D., and Parnell, K. E., 2006. Fringing and
nearshore coral reefs of the Great Barrier Reef: episodic Holocene development and future prospects. Journal of Coastal
Research, 22, 175–187.
Toscano, M. A., and Macintyre, I. G., 2003. Corrected western
Atlantic sea-level curve for the last 11,000 years based on calibrated
14 C dates from Acropora palmata and mangrove intertidal
peat. Coral Reefs, 22, 257–270.
Tudhope, A., and Scoffin, T. P., 1994. Growth and structure of fringing reefs in a muddy environment, South Thailand. Journal of
Sedimentary Research, A, 64, 752–764.
Vecsei, A., 2004. A new estimate of global reefal carbonate production including the fore-reefs. Global and Planetary Change, 43,
1–18.
Cross-references
Bioerosion
Corals: Biology, Skeletal Deposition, and Reef-Building
Density and Porosity: Influence on Reef Accretion Rates
Floatstone
Framestone
Packstone
Rudstone
Sea Level Change and Its Effect on Reef Growth
Submarine Lithification
Taphonomy
CARBONIFEROUS REEFS
Markus Aretz
Université de Toulouse (UPS), Toulouse, France
Definition
All reefs, which formed during the Carboniferous period
(ca. 359–299 Ma). The Carboniferous is the longest
period of the Phanerozoic Eon. It was named after the
abundance of Coal-bearing strata in its upper half.
Although the geological perspective has to be considered, the Carboniferous period shows considerable overlap to modern times. Reefs formed during times of
profound global changes – greenhouse to icehouse
climates, dramatically changed continent configuration
during the process of supercontinent formation, and important and frequent sea level changes to name only
a few of them. Timing and duration of reef development
and their dimensions varied considerably on a regional
scale, but on the global scale reefs developed throughout
the entire Carboniferous period (Aretz and Vachard,
2007). Overall reef abundance was more common than
what has been often postulated, but lower compared to
peak times of reef development in the Middle Palaeozoic
(Webb, 2002).
Characteristic is the lack of a stable reef community.
A broad range of bioconstructors – microbial communities, calcareous and siliceous sponges, rugose and tabulate
corals, bryozoans, brachiopods, and calcareous algae –
contributed in varying abundances to different stage of
reef development (as initiation, formation, stabilization,
and domination). However, microbial communities were
very abundant and crucial for many Carboniferous reefs.
Reefs occurred along a bathymetric gradient from the
intertidal/subtidal interface to several hundred meters of
depth. Very different reef types developed from small
undifferentiated patch-reefs to atoll reefs on oceanic sea
mounts to reef tracts along shelf margins. The scarcity of
the latter had an important influence on the geometry of
many Carboniferous shelf systems.
Individual reef development reflects the local and/or
regional tectono-sedimentary environments, but climate
seems to be the most important global driving force.
Major re-organisations in the reef environments occurred
at the base of the Carboniferous, around the MidCarboniferous boundary, and at the base of the latest
Carboniferous.
The oldest reefs are shallow water microbial reefs near
the base of the Carboniferous in Eastern Australia. Muddominated mounds and buildups often labeled as
Waulsortian Mounds developed in deeper ramp settings
of many tropical and subtropical shelf systems of Early
Carboniferous age. Often they rose into the photic zone,
which resulted in a marked biodiversity increase in the
vertical profile of the individual mound. Contemporaneous
reefs in shallow waters formed by the above mentioned
190
CARBONIFEROUS REEFS