could provide an early warning system that a particular
reef is under stress and subject to increased rates of
bioerosion. In some cases, an increase in densities of echinoids may be sufficient to alert the managers that significant overfishing is occurring, water quality is declining
or turbidity is increasing, so that remedial action can
take place. An alternative may be to develop methods of
quickly assessing the level of sponge colonization of coral
rubble as a level of eutrophic conditions. Existing data
clearly show that after a massive mortality of corals from
a bleaching event, Crown of Thorns plague etc., levels
of bioerosion significantly increase and those reefs that
do recover are those where water quality is good, turbidity
levels are low, and fish populations are healthy, and there
are nearby “healthy” reefs that can act as source reefs to
re-establish the coral communities. In contrast if these
conditions are not met then substantial loss of reef framework occurs and the balance between reef growth and reef
destruction is not restored, leading to loss of biodiversity
and considerable economic and social consequences of
the loss of coral reefs.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the following for providing
references and comments on various drafts of this manuscript, Christine Schönberg, David Bellwood, Winston
Ponder, Klaus Rützler, Ian Macintyre and Howard Choat
and to David Hopley for the invitation to contribute to this
book.
Bibliography
Asgaard, U., Bromely, R. G., 2008. Echinometrid sea urchin, their
trophic styles and corresponding bioerosion. In Wisshak, M.,
and Tapanila, L. (eds.), Current Developments in Bioerosion.
Erlangen Conference Series. Berlin Heidelberg: SpringerVerlag, pp. 280–303.
Bak, R. P. M., 1976. The growth of coral colonies and the importance of crustose coralline algae and burrowing sponges in relation with carbonate accumulation. Netherlands Journal of Sea
Research, 10, 285–337.
Barbosa, S. S., Byrne, M., Kelahar, B. P., 2008. Bioerosion caused
by foraging of the tropical chiton Acanthopleura gemmata at
One Tree reef, southern Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 27,
635–639.
Barnes, D. J., Chalker, B. E., 1990. Calcification and photosynthesis
in reef-building corals and algae. In Dubinsky, Z. (ed.), Coral
Reefs. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 109–131.
Barthel, K., 1982. Lithophaga obese (Philippi) reef-dwelling and
cementing pelecypod–a survey of its boring. Proceedings of
4th International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila 1981, 2,
649–659.
Bellwood, D. R., 1986. The Functional Morphology, Systematic
and Behavioural Ecology of Parrot Fishes (Family Scaridae).
Unpublished PhD, Queensland, Australia, James Cook
University.
Bellwood, D. R., 2003. Origins and escalation of herbivory in
fishes: a functional perspective. Palaeobiology, 29(1), 71–83.
Bellwood, D. R., and Choat, J. H., 1990. A functional analysis of gr
azing in parrotfishes (family Scaridae) the ecological implications. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 28, 189–214.
Bellwood, D. R., and Schultz, O., 1991. A review of the fossil
record of the parrotfishes (Labroidei: Scaridae) with a description of a new Calotomus species from the Middle Miocene
(Badenian) of Austria. Annalen Naturhistorisches Museum
Wien, 92, 55–71.
Brodie, J., Fabricius, K., De’Ath, G., and Okaji, K., 2005. Are
increased nutrient inputs responsible for more outbreaks of
crown-of thorns-starfish? An appraisal of the evidence. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 51, 266–278.
Bromley, R. G., 1978. Bioerosion of Bermuda reefs. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology and Palaeoecology, 23, 169–197.
Bromley, R. G., and D’Alessandro, A., 1989. Ichnological studies
of shallow marine endolithic sponges from the Italian coast.
Rivista italiana di paleontologia e stratigrafia, 95, 227–296.
Bruggemann, J. H., van Kessel, A. M., van Rooij, J. M., and
Breeman, A. M., 1996. Bioerosion and sediment ingestion by
the Caribbean parrotfish Scarus vetula and Sparisoma viride:
implications of fish size, feeding mode and habitat use. Marine
Ecology Progress Series, 134, 59–71.
Buddemeier, R. W., Maragos, J. E., and Knutson, D. W., 1974.
Radiographic studies of reef coral exoskeletons: rates and patterns of coral growth. Journal of Experimental Biology and
Ecology, 141, 179–200.
Caspers, H., 1984. Spawning periodicity and habitat of the palolo
worm Eunice viridis (Polychaeta: Eunicidae) in the Samoan
Islands. Marine Biology, 79(3), 229–236.
Chaves-Fonnegra, A., and Zea, S., 2007. Observations on reef coral
undermining by the Caribbean excavating sponge Cliona delitrix
(Demospongiae, Hadromerida). In: Custódio, M. R., Hajdu, E.,
Lôbo-Hajdu, G., and Muricy, M. (eds.), Sponges – Biodiversity,
Innovation, Sustainability. Proceedings of the 7th International
Sponge Symposium (Rio de Janeiro), pp. 247–224.
Chazottes, V., Le Campion-Alsumard, T., Peyrot-Clausade, M., and
Cuet, P., 2002. The effects of eutrophication-related alterations
to coral reef communities on agents and rates of bioerosion
(Reunion Island, Indian Ocean). Coral Reefs, 21, 375–390.
Choat, J. H., and Randall, J. E., 1986. A revision of the parrotfishes
(family Scaridae) of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia with
description of a new species. Records of the Australian Museum,
38(4), 175–239.
Choat, J. H., Clements, K. D., and Robbins, W. D., 2002. The trophic status of herbivorous fishes on coral reefs. I: Dietary analyses. Marine Biology, 140, 613–623.
Cinner, J. E., McClanahan, T. R., Daw, T. M., Graham, N. A. J.,
Maina, J., Wilson, S. K., and Hughes, T. P., 2009. Linking social
and ecological systems to sustain coral reef fisheries. Current
Biology, 19(3), 206–212.
Colgan, M. W., 1987. Coral reef recovery on Guam (Micronesia)
after catastrophic predation by Acanthaster planci. Ecology,
68, 1592–1605.
Cortes, J., and Risk, M. J., 1985. A coral reef under siltation
stress: Cahuita, Costa Rica. Bulletin of Marine Science, 36,
339–356.
Cowman, P. F., Bellwood, D. R., and van Herwerden, L., 2009. Dating the evolutionary origins of wrasse lineages (Labridae) and
the rise of trophic novelty on coral reefs. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 52(3), 621–631.
Davies P. J., 1983. Reef growth. In: Barnes D. J. (ed.), Perspectives
on Coral Reefs. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine
Science, p. 69106.
Davies, P. J., and Hutchings, P. A., 1983. Initial colonisation, erosion and accretion on coral substrates – experimental results
Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 2, 27–35.
DeVantier, L. M., and Done, T. J., 2007. Inferring past outbreaks of
crown-of thorns seastars from scar patterns on coral heads. In
Aranson, R., and Beer R. (eds.), Geological Applications to
Coral Reef Ecology. New York: Springer, pp. 85–125.
BIOEROSION
153
reef is under stress and subject to increased rates of
bioerosion. In some cases, an increase in densities of echinoids may be sufficient to alert the managers that significant overfishing is occurring, water quality is declining
or turbidity is increasing, so that remedial action can
take place. An alternative may be to develop methods of
quickly assessing the level of sponge colonization of coral
rubble as a level of eutrophic conditions. Existing data
clearly show that after a massive mortality of corals from
a bleaching event, Crown of Thorns plague etc., levels
of bioerosion significantly increase and those reefs that
do recover are those where water quality is good, turbidity
levels are low, and fish populations are healthy, and there
are nearby “healthy” reefs that can act as source reefs to
re-establish the coral communities. In contrast if these
conditions are not met then substantial loss of reef framework occurs and the balance between reef growth and reef
destruction is not restored, leading to loss of biodiversity
and considerable economic and social consequences of
the loss of coral reefs.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the following for providing
references and comments on various drafts of this manuscript, Christine Schönberg, David Bellwood, Winston
Ponder, Klaus Rützler, Ian Macintyre and Howard Choat
and to David Hopley for the invitation to contribute to this
book.
Bibliography
Asgaard, U., Bromely, R. G., 2008. Echinometrid sea urchin, their
trophic styles and corresponding bioerosion. In Wisshak, M.,
and Tapanila, L. (eds.), Current Developments in Bioerosion.
Erlangen Conference Series. Berlin Heidelberg: SpringerVerlag, pp. 280–303.
Bak, R. P. M., 1976. The growth of coral colonies and the importance of crustose coralline algae and burrowing sponges in relation with carbonate accumulation. Netherlands Journal of Sea
Research, 10, 285–337.
Barbosa, S. S., Byrne, M., Kelahar, B. P., 2008. Bioerosion caused
by foraging of the tropical chiton Acanthopleura gemmata at
One Tree reef, southern Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 27,
635–639.
Barnes, D. J., Chalker, B. E., 1990. Calcification and photosynthesis
in reef-building corals and algae. In Dubinsky, Z. (ed.), Coral
Reefs. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 109–131.
Barthel, K., 1982. Lithophaga obese (Philippi) reef-dwelling and
cementing pelecypod–a survey of its boring. Proceedings of
4th International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila 1981, 2,
649–659.
Bellwood, D. R., 1986. The Functional Morphology, Systematic
and Behavioural Ecology of Parrot Fishes (Family Scaridae).
Unpublished PhD, Queensland, Australia, James Cook
University.
Bellwood, D. R., 2003. Origins and escalation of herbivory in
fishes: a functional perspective. Palaeobiology, 29(1), 71–83.
Bellwood, D. R., and Choat, J. H., 1990. A functional analysis of gr
azing in parrotfishes (family Scaridae) the ecological implications. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 28, 189–214.
Bellwood, D. R., and Schultz, O., 1991. A review of the fossil
record of the parrotfishes (Labroidei: Scaridae) with a description of a new Calotomus species from the Middle Miocene
(Badenian) of Austria. Annalen Naturhistorisches Museum
Wien, 92, 55–71.
Brodie, J., Fabricius, K., De’Ath, G., and Okaji, K., 2005. Are
increased nutrient inputs responsible for more outbreaks of
crown-of thorns-starfish? An appraisal of the evidence. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 51, 266–278.
Bromley, R. G., 1978. Bioerosion of Bermuda reefs. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology and Palaeoecology, 23, 169–197.
Bromley, R. G., and D’Alessandro, A., 1989. Ichnological studies
of shallow marine endolithic sponges from the Italian coast.
Rivista italiana di paleontologia e stratigrafia, 95, 227–296.
Bruggemann, J. H., van Kessel, A. M., van Rooij, J. M., and
Breeman, A. M., 1996. Bioerosion and sediment ingestion by
the Caribbean parrotfish Scarus vetula and Sparisoma viride:
implications of fish size, feeding mode and habitat use. Marine
Ecology Progress Series, 134, 59–71.
Buddemeier, R. W., Maragos, J. E., and Knutson, D. W., 1974.
Radiographic studies of reef coral exoskeletons: rates and patterns of coral growth. Journal of Experimental Biology and
Ecology, 141, 179–200.
Caspers, H., 1984. Spawning periodicity and habitat of the palolo
worm Eunice viridis (Polychaeta: Eunicidae) in the Samoan
Islands. Marine Biology, 79(3), 229–236.
Chaves-Fonnegra, A., and Zea, S., 2007. Observations on reef coral
undermining by the Caribbean excavating sponge Cliona delitrix
(Demospongiae, Hadromerida). In: Custódio, M. R., Hajdu, E.,
Lôbo-Hajdu, G., and Muricy, M. (eds.), Sponges – Biodiversity,
Innovation, Sustainability. Proceedings of the 7th International
Sponge Symposium (Rio de Janeiro), pp. 247–224.
Chazottes, V., Le Campion-Alsumard, T., Peyrot-Clausade, M., and
Cuet, P., 2002. The effects of eutrophication-related alterations
to coral reef communities on agents and rates of bioerosion
(Reunion Island, Indian Ocean). Coral Reefs, 21, 375–390.
Choat, J. H., and Randall, J. E., 1986. A revision of the parrotfishes
(family Scaridae) of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia with
description of a new species. Records of the Australian Museum,
38(4), 175–239.
Choat, J. H., Clements, K. D., and Robbins, W. D., 2002. The trophic status of herbivorous fishes on coral reefs. I: Dietary analyses. Marine Biology, 140, 613–623.
Cinner, J. E., McClanahan, T. R., Daw, T. M., Graham, N. A. J.,
Maina, J., Wilson, S. K., and Hughes, T. P., 2009. Linking social
and ecological systems to sustain coral reef fisheries. Current
Biology, 19(3), 206–212.
Colgan, M. W., 1987. Coral reef recovery on Guam (Micronesia)
after catastrophic predation by Acanthaster planci. Ecology,
68, 1592–1605.
Cortes, J., and Risk, M. J., 1985. A coral reef under siltation
stress: Cahuita, Costa Rica. Bulletin of Marine Science, 36,
339–356.
Cowman, P. F., Bellwood, D. R., and van Herwerden, L., 2009. Dating the evolutionary origins of wrasse lineages (Labridae) and
the rise of trophic novelty on coral reefs. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 52(3), 621–631.
Davies P. J., 1983. Reef growth. In: Barnes D. J. (ed.), Perspectives
on Coral Reefs. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine
Science, p. 69106.
Davies, P. J., and Hutchings, P. A., 1983. Initial colonisation, erosion and accretion on coral substrates – experimental results
Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs, 2, 27–35.
DeVantier, L. M., and Done, T. J., 2007. Inferring past outbreaks of
crown-of thorns seastars from scar patterns on coral heads. In
Aranson, R., and Beer R. (eds.), Geological Applications to
Coral Reef Ecology. New York: Springer, pp. 85–125.
BIOEROSION
153