41
organelles) (Menon and Menon 2000 ). In order to make their feather waterproof, a
bird spreads waxes and fats, which are originally secreted by the preening gland.
Additionally, birds also have, special feathers made of keratin that break into small
dust-like pieces and known as powder downs (Chandler 1916 ; Stettenheim 2000 ).
This dust is spread throughout the feathers of seabirds and plays very important
role in the phenomenon of waterproofi ng. The powder downs are an “elaborate lipid
rich material, which can be classifi ed as secretion” (Menon and Menon 2000 ).
Birds and mammals distinguish from reptiles, amphibians and fi sh because of
their “warm-bloodedness”, or endothermic homeothermy. The success of birds
and mammals in aquatic and terrestrial environments may be largely determined by
endothermy. “Elevated rates of lung ventilation, oxygen consumption, and internal
heat production (via aerobic metabolism), which are the hallmarks of endothermy,
enable birds and mammals to maintain thermal stability over a wide range of ambient
temperatures” (Ruben and Jones 2000 ).
Feathers are associated with both the fl ight (Feduccia 1996 ) and the thermoregulation of seabirds. However, “it is likely that avian endothermy probably evolved
long after the origin of avian fl ight, in association with selection for enhanced
capacity for long-distance fl ight rather than for thermoregulatory purposes” (Ruben
and Jones 2000 ).
Recently, a report was released (Grémillet et al. 2005 ) on the specifi c feather
structure of the great cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo ) that allows partial plumage
wettability in diving birds. It was observed that each body feather of this seabird
species has a loose, instantaneously wet, outer section and a highly waterproof
central portion. Because of this structural feature, the plumage of P. carbo is only
partly wettable. Thus, the bird maintains a thin layer of air in their plumage. “These
fi ndings suggest an unusual morphological-functional adaptation to diving which
balances the antagonist constraints of thermoregulation and buoyancy,” (Grémillet
et al. 2005 ).
Wings and Flight
The shape of the seabird’s wing seems to be an ideal construct for soaring and gliding
along the sea’s surface (for review see Savile 1957 ; Videler 2005 ; Brewer and Hertel
2007 ). For example, shearwaters and albatross are well known superb gliders, often
soaring over large distances without taking a wing beat. The wing planform, camber
lane and thickness distribution in seabirds are species dependent. These structural
features are crucial from aero dynamical point of view. Seabirds possess wings which
are generally larger than that of terrestrial species including the length of the fl ight
feathers (see for review Ashmole 1971 ). Additionally, they use their amazing wingspans to ride the ocean winds and “sometimes to glide for hours without rest or even
a fl ap of their wings” (Pennyquick 1987 ). Some species also fl oat on the sea’s
surface, though the position makes them vulnerable to sharks. Wielding their up to
3.5 m long wings, a parent albatross can cover a distance of about 16,000 km to
deliver one meal to its nestlings (Safi na 2007 ; see for review Harrop 1994 ; Tickell
2000 ; Brooke 2004 ). It is suggested that, for example, the 50-year-old albatross has
fl own, at the very least, a total of 6 million km (Fisher 1975 ).
1.2 Part I: Biomaterials of Vertebrate Origin. An Overview
organelles) (Menon and Menon 2000 ). In order to make their feather waterproof, a
bird spreads waxes and fats, which are originally secreted by the preening gland.
Additionally, birds also have, special feathers made of keratin that break into small
dust-like pieces and known as powder downs (Chandler 1916 ; Stettenheim 2000 ).
This dust is spread throughout the feathers of seabirds and plays very important
role in the phenomenon of waterproofi ng. The powder downs are an “elaborate lipid
rich material, which can be classifi ed as secretion” (Menon and Menon 2000 ).
Birds and mammals distinguish from reptiles, amphibians and fi sh because of
their “warm-bloodedness”, or endothermic homeothermy. The success of birds
and mammals in aquatic and terrestrial environments may be largely determined by
endothermy. “Elevated rates of lung ventilation, oxygen consumption, and internal
heat production (via aerobic metabolism), which are the hallmarks of endothermy,
enable birds and mammals to maintain thermal stability over a wide range of ambient
temperatures” (Ruben and Jones 2000 ).
Feathers are associated with both the fl ight (Feduccia 1996 ) and the thermoregulation of seabirds. However, “it is likely that avian endothermy probably evolved
long after the origin of avian fl ight, in association with selection for enhanced
capacity for long-distance fl ight rather than for thermoregulatory purposes” (Ruben
and Jones 2000 ).
Recently, a report was released (Grémillet et al. 2005 ) on the specifi c feather
structure of the great cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo ) that allows partial plumage
wettability in diving birds. It was observed that each body feather of this seabird
species has a loose, instantaneously wet, outer section and a highly waterproof
central portion. Because of this structural feature, the plumage of P. carbo is only
partly wettable. Thus, the bird maintains a thin layer of air in their plumage. “These
fi ndings suggest an unusual morphological-functional adaptation to diving which
balances the antagonist constraints of thermoregulation and buoyancy,” (Grémillet
et al. 2005 ).
Wings and Flight
The shape of the seabird’s wing seems to be an ideal construct for soaring and gliding
along the sea’s surface (for review see Savile 1957 ; Videler 2005 ; Brewer and Hertel
2007 ). For example, shearwaters and albatross are well known superb gliders, often
soaring over large distances without taking a wing beat. The wing planform, camber
lane and thickness distribution in seabirds are species dependent. These structural
features are crucial from aero dynamical point of view. Seabirds possess wings which
are generally larger than that of terrestrial species including the length of the fl ight
feathers (see for review Ashmole 1971 ). Additionally, they use their amazing wingspans to ride the ocean winds and “sometimes to glide for hours without rest or even
a fl ap of their wings” (Pennyquick 1987 ). Some species also fl oat on the sea’s
surface, though the position makes them vulnerable to sharks. Wielding their up to
3.5 m long wings, a parent albatross can cover a distance of about 16,000 km to
deliver one meal to its nestlings (Safi na 2007 ; see for review Harrop 1994 ; Tickell
2000 ; Brooke 2004 ). It is suggested that, for example, the 50-year-old albatross has
fl own, at the very least, a total of 6 million km (Fisher 1975 ).
1.2 Part I: Biomaterials of Vertebrate Origin. An Overview