33
0.45 m/s (28 body lengths/min) (Dawson et al. 1977 ). They can arrived depths up
to 12 m, and remain submerged for as long as 30 min (Hobson 1965 ) because
their powerful claws help them to hold on to rocks in the heavy sea. Similar to other
reptiles, marine iguanas also have reduced the number of heart beats per minute
from about 43 on land to 7–9 while diving (Higgins 1978 ). The feeding of
Amblyrhynchus take place under relatively cool water temperatures, (15–25 ° C)
typical for the Galapagos Archipelago. This situation potentially hinder development of the intensity of activity required during feeding. Therefore, it was observed
that these large reptiles bask in the sun and reach body temperatures in the vicinity
of 35 °C (Bartholomew and Lasiewski 1965 ; Dawson et al. 1977 ).
To cope with marine high-salt diet, Amblyrhynchus successfully uses large
cranial salt glands. These formations being located over the eye (Dunson 1969 ), are
responsible for excretion of the sodium, potassium, and chloride ingested (see for
review Hazard 2004 ) (see also Sect. 3.6 in this work). “Forceful expulsion of the
secreted fl uid is the cause of the dramatic snorting and sneezing observed in these
animals,” (Schmidt–Nielsen and Fange 1958 ). Probably, this periodically occurring
ejection is also used by iguanas to warn of intruders. The white “wig” often seen on
marine iguanas is the result of the salt spray that often shoots up into the air and then
falls back on the head of the animal.
According to my personal opinion, this phenomenon is an example of very
unusual “biominerals production” in the animal world. Unfortunately, the salt
glands have not yet to be investigated as producers of biominerals.
Intriguingly for experts in biomaterials: “adult marine iguanas can switch repeatedly between growth and shrinkage during their lifetime, depending on environmental conditions,” (Wikelski and Thom 2000 ). Note, that in humans, bone regrowth
after osteoporosis is usually impossible (Dennison and Cooper 2011 ). Especially in
postmenopausal women, osteoporosis leads to several health problems (Pinkerton
et al. 2010 ).
Snakes (Suborder Serpentes, or Ophidia, with about 2,000 species) are basically
legless reptiles, measuring between 10 cm and 7.6 m in length. It is suggested that
they evolved from lizards. However, the taxonomic status of “sea snakes” is still under
review (Rasmussen 1997 ). In contrast to other reptiles, representatives of Serpentes
lack outside ears. They have eyes which are covered only with permanent transparent
scales. Snakes are distributed in different environmental niches including terrestrial
area, lakeshores and even salt waters.
Sea snakes (Hydrophiinae) (Smith 1926 ) usually habituate in the tropical and
subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacifi c oceans. Diverse species are found in the
Australian region, Indonesia, Indo-Malayan Archipelago as well as in China seas.
However, two specimens of Pelamis platurus were reported from Namibia coastal
waters (Branch 1998 ). Sea snakes were observed in lakes in Thailand, Cambodia,
the Philippines, and Rennell Island. They habituate shallow waters, river mouths,
and even can penetrate into rivers up to more than 100 miles from the ocean (see for
review Dunson 1975 ; Rasmussen 2001 ).
Several anatomical features of the sea snake’s body confirm numerous
adaptations for life in the ocean (see for detailed review Graham et al. 1987 ;
1.2 Part I: Biomaterials of Vertebrate Origin. An Overview
0.45 m/s (28 body lengths/min) (Dawson et al. 1977 ). They can arrived depths up
to 12 m, and remain submerged for as long as 30 min (Hobson 1965 ) because
their powerful claws help them to hold on to rocks in the heavy sea. Similar to other
reptiles, marine iguanas also have reduced the number of heart beats per minute
from about 43 on land to 7–9 while diving (Higgins 1978 ). The feeding of
Amblyrhynchus take place under relatively cool water temperatures, (15–25 ° C)
typical for the Galapagos Archipelago. This situation potentially hinder development of the intensity of activity required during feeding. Therefore, it was observed
that these large reptiles bask in the sun and reach body temperatures in the vicinity
of 35 °C (Bartholomew and Lasiewski 1965 ; Dawson et al. 1977 ).
To cope with marine high-salt diet, Amblyrhynchus successfully uses large
cranial salt glands. These formations being located over the eye (Dunson 1969 ), are
responsible for excretion of the sodium, potassium, and chloride ingested (see for
review Hazard 2004 ) (see also Sect. 3.6 in this work). “Forceful expulsion of the
secreted fl uid is the cause of the dramatic snorting and sneezing observed in these
animals,” (Schmidt–Nielsen and Fange 1958 ). Probably, this periodically occurring
ejection is also used by iguanas to warn of intruders. The white “wig” often seen on
marine iguanas is the result of the salt spray that often shoots up into the air and then
falls back on the head of the animal.
According to my personal opinion, this phenomenon is an example of very
unusual “biominerals production” in the animal world. Unfortunately, the salt
glands have not yet to be investigated as producers of biominerals.
Intriguingly for experts in biomaterials: “adult marine iguanas can switch repeatedly between growth and shrinkage during their lifetime, depending on environmental conditions,” (Wikelski and Thom 2000 ). Note, that in humans, bone regrowth
after osteoporosis is usually impossible (Dennison and Cooper 2011 ). Especially in
postmenopausal women, osteoporosis leads to several health problems (Pinkerton
et al. 2010 ).
Snakes (Suborder Serpentes, or Ophidia, with about 2,000 species) are basically
legless reptiles, measuring between 10 cm and 7.6 m in length. It is suggested that
they evolved from lizards. However, the taxonomic status of “sea snakes” is still under
review (Rasmussen 1997 ). In contrast to other reptiles, representatives of Serpentes
lack outside ears. They have eyes which are covered only with permanent transparent
scales. Snakes are distributed in different environmental niches including terrestrial
area, lakeshores and even salt waters.
Sea snakes (Hydrophiinae) (Smith 1926 ) usually habituate in the tropical and
subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacifi c oceans. Diverse species are found in the
Australian region, Indonesia, Indo-Malayan Archipelago as well as in China seas.
However, two specimens of Pelamis platurus were reported from Namibia coastal
waters (Branch 1998 ). Sea snakes were observed in lakes in Thailand, Cambodia,
the Philippines, and Rennell Island. They habituate shallow waters, river mouths,
and even can penetrate into rivers up to more than 100 miles from the ocean (see for
review Dunson 1975 ; Rasmussen 2001 ).
Several anatomical features of the sea snake’s body confirm numerous
adaptations for life in the ocean (see for detailed review Graham et al. 1987 ;
1.2 Part I: Biomaterials of Vertebrate Origin. An Overview