414
Destruction and Recovery of Reef Systems, Reef and Man
corals died and were replaced by colonial ascidians and zoantharians. In
1978 the dumping was stopped. In 1983 corals tolerant of pollution
(Montipora, Porites) started to grow there again (Maragos et al. 1985).
On the Ryukyu Islands coral reefs were stressed in 1950 by military
construction. Then they were attacked by Acanthaster, and then by the
tourists. What remained of them were again attacked in the 1980s by sea
stars. In many places on these islands reefs were destroyed by the cutting of
wood in the coastal area and by water discharge from fertili{,:ed fields
(Kiihlmann 1988b). The local authorities did not undertake any measure
against such developments (Muzik 1985). The same fate owaits the reefs off
the Pacific coast of Panama. They are heavily stressed by siltation, effluents
of pesticides, and by eutrophication (Glynn 1984). A dangerous situation is
developing now on reefs of the western Atlantic also. Most of them are
stressed by tourists, fishermen, and by total pollution of this region. Some
recent reviews revealed their apparent degradation. Their regeneration after
cyclones becomes more prolonged. Mass mcortality of corals and other
benthic animals on them now is a usual phenomenon (Salvat 1987). Corals
on many reefs are diseased. The fisheries in this region have been actually
ruined. The formerly flourishing reefs off Venezuela, stressed by waste
effluents and the tourist boom, were killed in only 10 years (Weiss and
Goddart 1977). Colonies of dead acropores were overgrown by bryozoans
and then collapsed. The situation in this region became still graver when the
reefs of the Virgin Islands, Antiqua, Guadelupe, Martinique and the
Dominican Republic had been damaged by the hurricanes David and
Frederic in 1979, and the reefs of Jamaica and Caiman Island, by the
hurricane Allen. The Atlantic reefs are now in a somewhat better position
from the viewpoint of stress, compared with reefs of the Indo-Pacific
because the Acanthaster is still absent there. However, the danger of its
penetration in any case exists, especially if the proposed new Panama comal,
without lock and filled with seawater, is constructed (Porter 1972).
The reefs of the GBR also suffer from significant anthropogenic stress
(Kinsey 1991). One of its main factors is the development of agriculture and
industry along the east coast of Australia, which produced much waste and
terrigenic suspended matter, arriving with drainage waters to the GBR
zone. Also, tourism is booming all along this zone to the south of
Cooktown. The GBR reefs until recently had been preyed upon by
collectors of molluscs and by Chinese (Taiwan) hunters for tridacnas and
holothurians. Since 1960 many of them have been de,vastated by
Acanthaster. Therefore, even if in this area most reefs are still preserving
their natural communities, there is definite apprehension concerning their
future.
The complete avoidance of external stress results in gradual recovery of
the inhibited reef community (Coles 1984; Maragos et al. 1985; Fraizer et al.
1985). Even after the nuclear tests on Enivetok atoll the reef communities
have regained in general their features in 13 years (Johannes 1970). More
Destruction and Recovery of Reef Systems, Reef and Man
corals died and were replaced by colonial ascidians and zoantharians. In
1978 the dumping was stopped. In 1983 corals tolerant of pollution
(Montipora, Porites) started to grow there again (Maragos et al. 1985).
On the Ryukyu Islands coral reefs were stressed in 1950 by military
construction. Then they were attacked by Acanthaster, and then by the
tourists. What remained of them were again attacked in the 1980s by sea
stars. In many places on these islands reefs were destroyed by the cutting of
wood in the coastal area and by water discharge from fertili{,:ed fields
(Kiihlmann 1988b). The local authorities did not undertake any measure
against such developments (Muzik 1985). The same fate owaits the reefs off
the Pacific coast of Panama. They are heavily stressed by siltation, effluents
of pesticides, and by eutrophication (Glynn 1984). A dangerous situation is
developing now on reefs of the western Atlantic also. Most of them are
stressed by tourists, fishermen, and by total pollution of this region. Some
recent reviews revealed their apparent degradation. Their regeneration after
cyclones becomes more prolonged. Mass mcortality of corals and other
benthic animals on them now is a usual phenomenon (Salvat 1987). Corals
on many reefs are diseased. The fisheries in this region have been actually
ruined. The formerly flourishing reefs off Venezuela, stressed by waste
effluents and the tourist boom, were killed in only 10 years (Weiss and
Goddart 1977). Colonies of dead acropores were overgrown by bryozoans
and then collapsed. The situation in this region became still graver when the
reefs of the Virgin Islands, Antiqua, Guadelupe, Martinique and the
Dominican Republic had been damaged by the hurricanes David and
Frederic in 1979, and the reefs of Jamaica and Caiman Island, by the
hurricane Allen. The Atlantic reefs are now in a somewhat better position
from the viewpoint of stress, compared with reefs of the Indo-Pacific
because the Acanthaster is still absent there. However, the danger of its
penetration in any case exists, especially if the proposed new Panama comal,
without lock and filled with seawater, is constructed (Porter 1972).
The reefs of the GBR also suffer from significant anthropogenic stress
(Kinsey 1991). One of its main factors is the development of agriculture and
industry along the east coast of Australia, which produced much waste and
terrigenic suspended matter, arriving with drainage waters to the GBR
zone. Also, tourism is booming all along this zone to the south of
Cooktown. The GBR reefs until recently had been preyed upon by
collectors of molluscs and by Chinese (Taiwan) hunters for tridacnas and
holothurians. Since 1960 many of them have been de,vastated by
Acanthaster. Therefore, even if in this area most reefs are still preserving
their natural communities, there is definite apprehension concerning their
future.
The complete avoidance of external stress results in gradual recovery of
the inhibited reef community (Coles 1984; Maragos et al. 1985; Fraizer et al.
1985). Even after the nuclear tests on Enivetok atoll the reef communities
have regained in general their features in 13 years (Johannes 1970). More