uplifted river valleys are all examples of systems that can
be considered to be structurally influenced (Hume and
Herdendorf, 1988; Hume, 2003). In highly jointed bedrock, ria-type estuaries form, and these can also
be classified as structural estuaries (Kennedy, 2011).
The infill of structurally dominated estuaries is complex,
being driven by sediment supply, accommodation space,
and process dominance (Kennedy, 2011), with those
sequences on tectonically active coasts preserving multiple transgressive and regressive sequences in response to
vertical land movement (Wilson et al., 2007).
Bibliography
Hume, T., 2003. Estuaries and tidal inlets. In Goff, J. R., Nichol,
S. L., and Rouse, H. L. (eds.), The New Zealand coast. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.
Hume, T. M., and Herdendorf, C. E., 1988. A geomorphic classification of estuaries and its application to coastal resource
management – a New Zealand example. Journal of Ocean
Shoreline Management, 11, 249–274.
Kennedy, D. M., 2011. Tectonic and geomorphic evolution of
estuaries and coasts. In Wolanski, E., and McLusky, D. (eds.),
Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science. Waltham: Academic,
Vol. 3, pp. 37–59.
Quivira, M. P., 1995. Structural estuaries. In Perillo, G. M. E. (ed.),
Developments in Sedimentology. Amsterdam, Chap. 8: Elsevier,
pp. 227–239.
Wilson, K., Berryman, K., Cochran, U., and Little, T., 2007.
A Holocene incised valley infill sequence developed on a
tectonically active coast: Pakarae River, New Zealand.
Sedimentary Geology, 197, 333–354.
Cross-references
Emergent Shoreline
Submerged Coasts
Submergent Shoreline
Tectonic Eustasy
Uplifted Coasts
SUBAQUEOUS SOILS
Mark H. Stolt
Department of Natural Resources, University of Rhode
Island, Kingston, RI, USA
Definition
The foundation of every estuarine ecosystem is the water
column and underlying substrate that support the plants
and animals living in these unique habitats. In most cases,
the substrate is considered sediment, and the materials are
classified based simply on their grain size (i.e., mud, sand).
In the late 1990s, pedologists began developing a soil science approach to study, map, and classify shallow subtidal
substrates as soils (http://nesoil.com/sas/index.htm). These
studies recognized that shallow subtidal substrate often
supports rooted plants (submerged aquatic vegetation;
SAV) and that a range of physical, chemical, and biological
processes operate in these systems resulting in the formation of subaqueous soils. Important processes in subaqueous soils include accumulation of organic matter,
accumulation of sulfides (sulfidization), sedimentation,
and bioturbation (soil mixing). Early studies of subaqueous
soils focused on methodologies to sample and characterize
these soil materials. Models were developed to link shallow
subtidal landscapes (i.e., flood-tidal deltas, washover fans,
submerged beaches) to specific soil types. Understanding
the processes, characteristics, and subaqueous soillandscape relationships aided in developing soil taxa to
classify the soils which could be used to map the subtidal
components of estuaries. These taxa are incorporated
into the Entisol and Histosol orders of the US national
soil classification system known as Soil Taxonomy
(ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NSSC/Soil_Taxonomy/keys/
ebook/Keys_to_Soil_Taxonomy_11th_Edition.pdf).
More recent studies have focused on the application of
subaqueous soils information to estuarine management
issues such as shellfish and SAV restoration, identifying
productive areas for shellfish aquaculture, carbon accounting, and determining which areas can be dredged and the
materials placed on the upland (Rabenhorst and Stolt,
2012). The authors of the US National Coastal
and Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS;
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/publications/cmecs)
recognized the value of its use and management interpretations and recommended that the subaqueous soils approach
be employed to classify shallow subtidal substrates for use
and management purposes. Mapping subaqueous soils is
usually done in waters less than 5 m deep. Although the
methods to create a subaqueous soils map are well developed, mapping subaqueous soils is still in its infancy. Maps
of selected estuaries are available on the Atlantic coast of
the USA (in Maine, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York,
New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Florida).
Bibliography
Rabenhorst, M. C., and Stolt, M. H., 2012. Subaqueous soils:
pedogenesis, mapping, and applications. In Lin, H. (ed.),
Hydropedology: Synergistic Integration of Soil Science and
Hydrology. Waltham: Academic, pp. 173–204.
Cross-references
Sediment Grain Size
SUBLITTORAL ZONE
Michael J. Kennish
Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences,
School of Environmental and Biological Sciences,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Synonyms
Subtidal zone
SUBLITTORAL ZONE
649
be considered to be structurally influenced (Hume and
Herdendorf, 1988; Hume, 2003). In highly jointed bedrock, ria-type estuaries form, and these can also
be classified as structural estuaries (Kennedy, 2011).
The infill of structurally dominated estuaries is complex,
being driven by sediment supply, accommodation space,
and process dominance (Kennedy, 2011), with those
sequences on tectonically active coasts preserving multiple transgressive and regressive sequences in response to
vertical land movement (Wilson et al., 2007).
Bibliography
Hume, T., 2003. Estuaries and tidal inlets. In Goff, J. R., Nichol,
S. L., and Rouse, H. L. (eds.), The New Zealand coast. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.
Hume, T. M., and Herdendorf, C. E., 1988. A geomorphic classification of estuaries and its application to coastal resource
management – a New Zealand example. Journal of Ocean
Shoreline Management, 11, 249–274.
Kennedy, D. M., 2011. Tectonic and geomorphic evolution of
estuaries and coasts. In Wolanski, E., and McLusky, D. (eds.),
Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science. Waltham: Academic,
Vol. 3, pp. 37–59.
Quivira, M. P., 1995. Structural estuaries. In Perillo, G. M. E. (ed.),
Developments in Sedimentology. Amsterdam, Chap. 8: Elsevier,
pp. 227–239.
Wilson, K., Berryman, K., Cochran, U., and Little, T., 2007.
A Holocene incised valley infill sequence developed on a
tectonically active coast: Pakarae River, New Zealand.
Sedimentary Geology, 197, 333–354.
Cross-references
Emergent Shoreline
Submerged Coasts
Submergent Shoreline
Tectonic Eustasy
Uplifted Coasts
SUBAQUEOUS SOILS
Mark H. Stolt
Department of Natural Resources, University of Rhode
Island, Kingston, RI, USA
Definition
The foundation of every estuarine ecosystem is the water
column and underlying substrate that support the plants
and animals living in these unique habitats. In most cases,
the substrate is considered sediment, and the materials are
classified based simply on their grain size (i.e., mud, sand).
In the late 1990s, pedologists began developing a soil science approach to study, map, and classify shallow subtidal
substrates as soils (http://nesoil.com/sas/index.htm). These
studies recognized that shallow subtidal substrate often
supports rooted plants (submerged aquatic vegetation;
SAV) and that a range of physical, chemical, and biological
processes operate in these systems resulting in the formation of subaqueous soils. Important processes in subaqueous soils include accumulation of organic matter,
accumulation of sulfides (sulfidization), sedimentation,
and bioturbation (soil mixing). Early studies of subaqueous
soils focused on methodologies to sample and characterize
these soil materials. Models were developed to link shallow
subtidal landscapes (i.e., flood-tidal deltas, washover fans,
submerged beaches) to specific soil types. Understanding
the processes, characteristics, and subaqueous soillandscape relationships aided in developing soil taxa to
classify the soils which could be used to map the subtidal
components of estuaries. These taxa are incorporated
into the Entisol and Histosol orders of the US national
soil classification system known as Soil Taxonomy
(ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NSSC/Soil_Taxonomy/keys/
ebook/Keys_to_Soil_Taxonomy_11th_Edition.pdf).
More recent studies have focused on the application of
subaqueous soils information to estuarine management
issues such as shellfish and SAV restoration, identifying
productive areas for shellfish aquaculture, carbon accounting, and determining which areas can be dredged and the
materials placed on the upland (Rabenhorst and Stolt,
2012). The authors of the US National Coastal
and Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS;
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/publications/cmecs)
recognized the value of its use and management interpretations and recommended that the subaqueous soils approach
be employed to classify shallow subtidal substrates for use
and management purposes. Mapping subaqueous soils is
usually done in waters less than 5 m deep. Although the
methods to create a subaqueous soils map are well developed, mapping subaqueous soils is still in its infancy. Maps
of selected estuaries are available on the Atlantic coast of
the USA (in Maine, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York,
New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Florida).
Bibliography
Rabenhorst, M. C., and Stolt, M. H., 2012. Subaqueous soils:
pedogenesis, mapping, and applications. In Lin, H. (ed.),
Hydropedology: Synergistic Integration of Soil Science and
Hydrology. Waltham: Academic, pp. 173–204.
Cross-references
Sediment Grain Size
SUBLITTORAL ZONE
Michael J. Kennish
Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences,
School of Environmental and Biological Sciences,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Synonyms
Subtidal zone
SUBLITTORAL ZONE
649