disposal), and alter biotic communities and are effectively
driven by multiple stressors (e.g., overfishing, introduced/
invasive species, human-altered hydrological regimes, and
climate change). Human activities can significantly impact
the structure, function, and ecological health of estuaries.
Bibliography
Alongi, D. M., 1998. Coastal Ecosystem Processes. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
Anderson, I. C., Stanhope, J. W., Hardison, A. K., and McGlathery,
K. J., 2010. Sources and fates of nitrogen in Virginia coastal
bays. In Kennish, M. J., and Paerl, H. W. (eds.), Coastal
Lagoons: Habitats of Environmental Change. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, pp. 43–72.
Boon, J. D., Brubaker, J. M., and Forrest, D. R., 2010. Chesapeake
Bay land subsidence and sea-level change: an evaluation of past
and present trends and future outlook. Special Report
No. 425, Applied Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA.
Bricker, S. B., Longstaff, B., Dennison, W., Jones, A., Boicourt, K.,
Wicks, C., and Woerner, J., 2007. Effects of Nutrient Enrichment
in the Nation’s Estuaries: A Decade of Change. Silver Spring,
MD: NOAA, National Ocean Service, Special Projects Office
and National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science.
Burkholder, J. M., Tomasko, D. A., and Touchette, B. W., 2007.
Seagrasses and eutrophication. Journal of Experimental Marine
Biology and Ecology, 350, 42–72.
Carlton, J. T., and Geller, J. B., 1993. Ecological roulette: the global
transport of nonindigenous marine organisms. Science, 261,
78–82.
Cohen, A. N., and Carlton, J. T., 1998. Accelerating invasion rate in
a highly invaded estuary. Science, 279, 555–562.
DeLaune, R. D., and Pezeshki, S. R., 1994. The influence of subsidence and saltwater intrusion on coastal marsh stability: Louisiana Gulf coast, USA. Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue,
12, 77–89.
Diaz, R. J., and Rosenberg, R., 1995. Marine benthic hypoxia:
a review of its ecological effects and the behavioral responses
of benthic macrofauna. Oceanography and Marine Biology
Annual Review, 33, 245–303.
Diaz, R. J., and Rosenberg, R., 2008. Spreading dead zones and
consequences for marine ecosystems. Science, 321, 926–929.
Engelman, R., Pauly, D., Zeller, D., Prinn, R. G., Pinnegar, J. K.,
and Polunin, N. V. C., 2008. Introduction: climate, people, fisheries, and aquatic ecosystems. In Polunin, N. V. C. (ed.), Aquatic
Ecosystems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–15.
Fries, J. S., Noble, R. T., Kelly, G. M., and Hsieh, J. L., 2007. Storm
impacts on potential pathogens in estuaries. Eos Transactions
American Geophysical Union, 88(8), 93–95, doi:10.1029/
2007EO080002.
Galloway, J. N., Townsend, A. R., Erisman, J. W., Bekunda, M.,
Cai, Z., Freney, J. R., Martinelli, L. A., Seitzinger, S. P., and Sutton, M. A., 2008. Transformation of the nitrogen cycle: recent
trends, questions, and potential solutions. Science, 320,
889–892.
Howarth, R. W., 2008. Coastal nitrogen pollution: a review of
sources and trends globally and regionally. Harmful Algae, 8,
14–20.
Howarth, R. W., Boyer, E. W., Pabich, W. J., and Galloway, J. N.,
2002a. Nitrogen use in the United States from 1961–2000 and
potential future trends. Ambio, 31, 88–96.
Howarth, R. W., Sharpley, A., and Walker, D., 2002b. Sources of
nutrient pollution to coastal waters in the United States: implications for achieving coastal water quality goals. Estuaries, 25,
656–676.
IPCC, 2007. Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC, 2013. Fifth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2013. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kennish, M. J., 1992. Ecology of Estuaries: Anthropogenic Effects.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kennish, M. J. (ed.), 1997. Practical Handbook of Estuarine and
Marine Pollution. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kennish, M. J., 1998. Trace metal-sediment dynamics in estuaries:
pollution assessment. Reviews of Environmental Contamination
and Toxicology, 155, 69–110.
Kennish, M. J. (ed.), 2000. Estuary Restoration and Maintenance.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kennish, M. J. (ed.), 2001a. Practical Handbook of Marine Science,
3rd edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kennish, M. J., 2001b. Coastal salt marsh systems in the U.S.:
a review of anthropogenic impacts. Journal of Coastal Research,
17, 731–748.
Kennish, M. J., 2002. Environmental threats and environmental
future of estuaries. Environmental Conservation, 29, 78–107.
Kennish, M. J., and de Jonge, V. N., 2011. Chemical introductions
to the systems: diffuse and nonpoint source pollution from
chemicals (nutrients: eutrophication). In Kennish, M. J., and
Elliott, M. (eds.), Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science,
Vol. 8, Human-induced Problems (Uses and Abuses). Oxford:
Elsevier. Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science,
pp. 113–148.
Kennish, M. J., and Paerl, H. W., 2010. Coastal lagoons: critical
habitats of environmental change. In Kennish, M. J., and Paerl,
H. W. (eds.), Coastal Lagoons: Critical Habitats of Environmental Change. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis, pp. 1–15.
Kennish, M. J., Livingston, R. J., Raffaelli, D., and Reise, K., 2008.
Environmental future of estuaries. In Polunin, N. (ed.), Aquatic
Ecosystems: Trends and Global Prospects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 188–208.
Kennish, M. J., Brush, M. J., and Moore, K. A., 2014a. Drivers of
change in shallow coastal photic systems: an introduction to
a special issue. Estuaries and Coasts, 37(Suppl. 1), S3–S19,
doi:10.1007/s1223701497794.
Kennish, M. J., Spahn, A., and Sakowicz, G. P., 2014b. Sentinel site
development of a major salt marsh system in the Mid-Atlantic
region. Open Journal of Ecology, 4, 77–86, doi:10.4236/
oje.2014.43010.
Lipp, E. K., Farrah, S. A., and Rose, J. B., 2001. Assessment
and impact of microbial fecal pollution and human enteric pathogens in a coastal community. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42,
286–293.
Moore, K. A., Shields, E. C., Parish, D. B., and Orth, R. J., 2012.
Eelgrass survival in two contrasting systems: role of turbidity
and summer water temperatures. Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 448, 247–258.
Moore, K. A., Shields, E. C., and Parrish, D. B., 2014. Impacts of
varying estuarine temperature and light conditions on Zostera
marina (eelgrass) and its interactions with Ruppia maritima
(widgeon grass). Estuaries and Coasts, 37(Suppl. 1), S20–S30.
National Research Council, 1993. Managing Wastewater in Coastal
Urban Areas. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
New, M., 2002. Trends in freshwater and marine production systems. In Pauly, D., and Palomares, M. L. (eds.), Production Systems in Fishery Management. Vancouver, BC: University of
British Columbia, Fisheries Center Research Report
No. 10 (8), pp. 21–27.
Rabalais, N. N., 2002. Nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems. Ambio, 31,
102–112.
Ribic, C. A., 1998. Use of indicator items to monitor marine debris
on a New Jersey beach from 1991 to 1996. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 36, 887–895.
34
ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS
driven by multiple stressors (e.g., overfishing, introduced/
invasive species, human-altered hydrological regimes, and
climate change). Human activities can significantly impact
the structure, function, and ecological health of estuaries.
Bibliography
Alongi, D. M., 1998. Coastal Ecosystem Processes. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
Anderson, I. C., Stanhope, J. W., Hardison, A. K., and McGlathery,
K. J., 2010. Sources and fates of nitrogen in Virginia coastal
bays. In Kennish, M. J., and Paerl, H. W. (eds.), Coastal
Lagoons: Habitats of Environmental Change. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, pp. 43–72.
Boon, J. D., Brubaker, J. M., and Forrest, D. R., 2010. Chesapeake
Bay land subsidence and sea-level change: an evaluation of past
and present trends and future outlook. Special Report
No. 425, Applied Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA.
Bricker, S. B., Longstaff, B., Dennison, W., Jones, A., Boicourt, K.,
Wicks, C., and Woerner, J., 2007. Effects of Nutrient Enrichment
in the Nation’s Estuaries: A Decade of Change. Silver Spring,
MD: NOAA, National Ocean Service, Special Projects Office
and National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science.
Burkholder, J. M., Tomasko, D. A., and Touchette, B. W., 2007.
Seagrasses and eutrophication. Journal of Experimental Marine
Biology and Ecology, 350, 42–72.
Carlton, J. T., and Geller, J. B., 1993. Ecological roulette: the global
transport of nonindigenous marine organisms. Science, 261,
78–82.
Cohen, A. N., and Carlton, J. T., 1998. Accelerating invasion rate in
a highly invaded estuary. Science, 279, 555–562.
DeLaune, R. D., and Pezeshki, S. R., 1994. The influence of subsidence and saltwater intrusion on coastal marsh stability: Louisiana Gulf coast, USA. Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue,
12, 77–89.
Diaz, R. J., and Rosenberg, R., 1995. Marine benthic hypoxia:
a review of its ecological effects and the behavioral responses
of benthic macrofauna. Oceanography and Marine Biology
Annual Review, 33, 245–303.
Diaz, R. J., and Rosenberg, R., 2008. Spreading dead zones and
consequences for marine ecosystems. Science, 321, 926–929.
Engelman, R., Pauly, D., Zeller, D., Prinn, R. G., Pinnegar, J. K.,
and Polunin, N. V. C., 2008. Introduction: climate, people, fisheries, and aquatic ecosystems. In Polunin, N. V. C. (ed.), Aquatic
Ecosystems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–15.
Fries, J. S., Noble, R. T., Kelly, G. M., and Hsieh, J. L., 2007. Storm
impacts on potential pathogens in estuaries. Eos Transactions
American Geophysical Union, 88(8), 93–95, doi:10.1029/
2007EO080002.
Galloway, J. N., Townsend, A. R., Erisman, J. W., Bekunda, M.,
Cai, Z., Freney, J. R., Martinelli, L. A., Seitzinger, S. P., and Sutton, M. A., 2008. Transformation of the nitrogen cycle: recent
trends, questions, and potential solutions. Science, 320,
889–892.
Howarth, R. W., 2008. Coastal nitrogen pollution: a review of
sources and trends globally and regionally. Harmful Algae, 8,
14–20.
Howarth, R. W., Boyer, E. W., Pabich, W. J., and Galloway, J. N.,
2002a. Nitrogen use in the United States from 1961–2000 and
potential future trends. Ambio, 31, 88–96.
Howarth, R. W., Sharpley, A., and Walker, D., 2002b. Sources of
nutrient pollution to coastal waters in the United States: implications for achieving coastal water quality goals. Estuaries, 25,
656–676.
IPCC, 2007. Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC, 2013. Fifth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2013. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kennish, M. J., 1992. Ecology of Estuaries: Anthropogenic Effects.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kennish, M. J. (ed.), 1997. Practical Handbook of Estuarine and
Marine Pollution. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kennish, M. J., 1998. Trace metal-sediment dynamics in estuaries:
pollution assessment. Reviews of Environmental Contamination
and Toxicology, 155, 69–110.
Kennish, M. J. (ed.), 2000. Estuary Restoration and Maintenance.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kennish, M. J. (ed.), 2001a. Practical Handbook of Marine Science,
3rd edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kennish, M. J., 2001b. Coastal salt marsh systems in the U.S.:
a review of anthropogenic impacts. Journal of Coastal Research,
17, 731–748.
Kennish, M. J., 2002. Environmental threats and environmental
future of estuaries. Environmental Conservation, 29, 78–107.
Kennish, M. J., and de Jonge, V. N., 2011. Chemical introductions
to the systems: diffuse and nonpoint source pollution from
chemicals (nutrients: eutrophication). In Kennish, M. J., and
Elliott, M. (eds.), Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science,
Vol. 8, Human-induced Problems (Uses and Abuses). Oxford:
Elsevier. Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science,
pp. 113–148.
Kennish, M. J., and Paerl, H. W., 2010. Coastal lagoons: critical
habitats of environmental change. In Kennish, M. J., and Paerl,
H. W. (eds.), Coastal Lagoons: Critical Habitats of Environmental Change. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis, pp. 1–15.
Kennish, M. J., Livingston, R. J., Raffaelli, D., and Reise, K., 2008.
Environmental future of estuaries. In Polunin, N. (ed.), Aquatic
Ecosystems: Trends and Global Prospects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 188–208.
Kennish, M. J., Brush, M. J., and Moore, K. A., 2014a. Drivers of
change in shallow coastal photic systems: an introduction to
a special issue. Estuaries and Coasts, 37(Suppl. 1), S3–S19,
doi:10.1007/s1223701497794.
Kennish, M. J., Spahn, A., and Sakowicz, G. P., 2014b. Sentinel site
development of a major salt marsh system in the Mid-Atlantic
region. Open Journal of Ecology, 4, 77–86, doi:10.4236/
oje.2014.43010.
Lipp, E. K., Farrah, S. A., and Rose, J. B., 2001. Assessment
and impact of microbial fecal pollution and human enteric pathogens in a coastal community. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42,
286–293.
Moore, K. A., Shields, E. C., Parish, D. B., and Orth, R. J., 2012.
Eelgrass survival in two contrasting systems: role of turbidity
and summer water temperatures. Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 448, 247–258.
Moore, K. A., Shields, E. C., and Parrish, D. B., 2014. Impacts of
varying estuarine temperature and light conditions on Zostera
marina (eelgrass) and its interactions with Ruppia maritima
(widgeon grass). Estuaries and Coasts, 37(Suppl. 1), S20–S30.
National Research Council, 1993. Managing Wastewater in Coastal
Urban Areas. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
New, M., 2002. Trends in freshwater and marine production systems. In Pauly, D., and Palomares, M. L. (eds.), Production Systems in Fishery Management. Vancouver, BC: University of
British Columbia, Fisheries Center Research Report
No. 10 (8), pp. 21–27.
Rabalais, N. N., 2002. Nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems. Ambio, 31,
102–112.
Ribic, C. A., 1998. Use of indicator items to monitor marine debris
on a New Jersey beach from 1991 to 1996. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 36, 887–895.
34
ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS