polyculture systems within controlled estuarine systems.
In the Netherlands, mussels have been grown with
polychaetes, while in Asia sea cucumbers Holothuria
scabra have been grown with seaweed and shrimp.
In parts of the world where important shellfish species
have declined, management regimes have been controlled
since the 1960s by Fisheries Acts introduced by governments or local regulations. Thus, many countries have
limits such as total allowable catch (TAC) as for cockles
in the UK and permits which limit licenses, restrict fishing
days or season length, and return small individuals to the
sea. Other mechanisms to protect and/or enhance shellfish
production are using restoration techniques to develop
wetlands and other habitats or artificially seed juveniles
into suitable habitat. In Florida, for example, ready-to-set
pedi-veligers of the bay scallop are released into estuaries
(Leverone et al., 2010). For successful restoration, not
only is there a need for ready supply of viable or healthy
spat, but the sites must be in areas where individuals are
likely to survive, grow, develop, and maintain sustainable
populations. There is therefore a need to better understand
the biology of individual target species and how they
respond to environmental stressors.
Summary
Estuarine shellfish production is predicted to remain
steady or increase over the next 20 years despite widespread belief that global change could fundamentally
change the nature of shallow intertidal habitats (Allison
et al., 2011). The threats to increased production include
increased incidence of pollution events, eutrophication,
and toxic algal blooms (Burkholder and Shumway,
2011). There are, however, other threats; for example,
invasive or transplanted species such as the Manila clam
Ruditapes philippinarum or oysters Crassostrea gigas
may replace native species. While these species can
become important dietary components, there is currently
little understanding about how such introductions could,
in the long term, affect the functioning of estuarine systems. According to Dumbauld et al. (2009), unlike other
anthropogenic influences, aquaculture systems do not
degrade water quality. Thus, together with whole ecosystem management, the increased use of modern tools,
genetics, breeding, improved hatchery techniques, GIS,
and modelling, there will be ongoing developments in production techniques which should support millions of people around the world who are employed in the shellfish
industry.
Bibliography
Allison, E. H., Badjeck, M. C., and Meinhold, K., 2011. The implications of global climate change for molluscan aquaculture.
In Shumway, S. E. (ed.), Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Hoboken: Wiley, pp. 461–490.
Anderson, S. C., Fleming, J. M., Watson, R., and Lotze, H. K., 2011.
Serial exploitation of global sea cucumber fisheries. Fish and
Fisheries, 12, 317–339.
Armstrong, D. A., Rooper, C., and Gunderson, D., 2003. Estuarine
production of juvenile Dungeness crab (Cancer magister)
and contribution to the Oregon-Washington coastal fishery.
Estuaries, 26, 1174–1188.
Burkholder, J. M., and Shumway, S. E., 2011. Bivalve shellfish
aquaculture and eutrophication. In Shumway, S. E. (ed.), Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Hoboken: Wiley,
pp. 155–215.
Chen, J., 2004. Present status and prospects of sea cucumber industry in China. FAO Document Repository, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.
Choo, P. Z., 2008. Population status, fisheries and trade of sea
cucumbers in Asia. In Toral-Granda, V., Lovatelli, A., and
Vasconcellos, M. (eds.), Sea Cucumbers. A Global Review of
Fisheries and Trade. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, Vol.
516, pp. 81–118.
Clark, J. E., Pritchett, M., and Hebert, K., 2009. Status of Sea
Cucumber Stocks in Southeast Alaska and Evaluation of the
Stock Assessment Program. Anchorage: Alaska Fish and Game.
Fishery Data Series, Vol. 09–12.
Dumbauld, B. R., Ruesink, J. L., and Rumrill, S. S., 2009. The ecological role of bivalve aquaculture in the estuarine environment:
a review with application to oyster and clam culture in West
Coast (USA) estuaries. Aquaculture, 290, 196–223.
FAO, 2012. The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture.
Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations, ISBN 978-92-5-107225-7, p. 22
Fogarty, M. J., and Lipcius, R. N., 2007. Population dynamics and
fisheries. In Kennedy, V. S., and Cronin, L. E. (eds.), The Blue
Crab Callinectes sapidus. Maryland: Maryland Sea Grant Book,
pp. 711–755.
Gosling, E., 2003. Bivalve Molluscs Biology, Ecology and Culture.
Oxford: Blackwell Science, Fishing News Books.
Leverone, J. R., Geiger, S. P., Stephenson, S. P., and Arnold, W. S.,
2010. Increase in bay scallop (Argopecten irradians)
populations following releases of competent larvae in two west
Florida estuaries. Journal of Shellfish Research, 29, 395–406.
Mistiaen, J. M., Strand, I. V., and Lipton, D., 2003. Effects of environmental stress on blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) harvests in
Chesapeake Bay tributaries. Estuaries, 26, 316–322.
Pillans, S., Pillans, R. D., Johnstone, R. W., Krafft, P. G., Haywood,
D. E., and Possingham, H. P., 2005. Effects of marine reserve
protection on the mud crab Scylla serrata in a sex-biased fishery
in subtropical Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 295,
201–213.
Roth, B. M., Rose, K. A., Rozas, L. P., and Minello, T. J., 2008. Relative influence of habitat fragmentation and inundation on
brown shrimp Farfantepenaeus aztecus production in northern
Gulf of Mexico salt marshes. Marine Ecology Progress Series,
359, 185–202.
Seed, R., and Suchanek, T. H., 1992. Population and community
ecology of Mytilus. In Gosling, E. M. (ed.), The Mussel Mytilus:
Ecology Physiology, Genetics and Culture. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, pp. 87–169.
Shumway, S. E., and Parsons, G. J. (eds.), 2006. Scallops: Biology,
Ecology and Aquaculture. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Trino, A. T., and Rodriguez, E. M., 2002. Pen culture of mud crab
Scylla serrata in tidal flats reforested with mangrove trees.
Aquaculture, 211, 125–134.
Zhang, Q.L., and Liu, Y.H., 1998. The Techniques of Sea Cucumber
Culture and its Enhancement. China: Ocean University
Publishing House.
Cross-references
Bivalve Aquaculture
Estuarine Habitat Restoration
SHELLFISH PRODUCTION
577
In the Netherlands, mussels have been grown with
polychaetes, while in Asia sea cucumbers Holothuria
scabra have been grown with seaweed and shrimp.
In parts of the world where important shellfish species
have declined, management regimes have been controlled
since the 1960s by Fisheries Acts introduced by governments or local regulations. Thus, many countries have
limits such as total allowable catch (TAC) as for cockles
in the UK and permits which limit licenses, restrict fishing
days or season length, and return small individuals to the
sea. Other mechanisms to protect and/or enhance shellfish
production are using restoration techniques to develop
wetlands and other habitats or artificially seed juveniles
into suitable habitat. In Florida, for example, ready-to-set
pedi-veligers of the bay scallop are released into estuaries
(Leverone et al., 2010). For successful restoration, not
only is there a need for ready supply of viable or healthy
spat, but the sites must be in areas where individuals are
likely to survive, grow, develop, and maintain sustainable
populations. There is therefore a need to better understand
the biology of individual target species and how they
respond to environmental stressors.
Summary
Estuarine shellfish production is predicted to remain
steady or increase over the next 20 years despite widespread belief that global change could fundamentally
change the nature of shallow intertidal habitats (Allison
et al., 2011). The threats to increased production include
increased incidence of pollution events, eutrophication,
and toxic algal blooms (Burkholder and Shumway,
2011). There are, however, other threats; for example,
invasive or transplanted species such as the Manila clam
Ruditapes philippinarum or oysters Crassostrea gigas
may replace native species. While these species can
become important dietary components, there is currently
little understanding about how such introductions could,
in the long term, affect the functioning of estuarine systems. According to Dumbauld et al. (2009), unlike other
anthropogenic influences, aquaculture systems do not
degrade water quality. Thus, together with whole ecosystem management, the increased use of modern tools,
genetics, breeding, improved hatchery techniques, GIS,
and modelling, there will be ongoing developments in production techniques which should support millions of people around the world who are employed in the shellfish
industry.
Bibliography
Allison, E. H., Badjeck, M. C., and Meinhold, K., 2011. The implications of global climate change for molluscan aquaculture.
In Shumway, S. E. (ed.), Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Hoboken: Wiley, pp. 461–490.
Anderson, S. C., Fleming, J. M., Watson, R., and Lotze, H. K., 2011.
Serial exploitation of global sea cucumber fisheries. Fish and
Fisheries, 12, 317–339.
Armstrong, D. A., Rooper, C., and Gunderson, D., 2003. Estuarine
production of juvenile Dungeness crab (Cancer magister)
and contribution to the Oregon-Washington coastal fishery.
Estuaries, 26, 1174–1188.
Burkholder, J. M., and Shumway, S. E., 2011. Bivalve shellfish
aquaculture and eutrophication. In Shumway, S. E. (ed.), Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Hoboken: Wiley,
pp. 155–215.
Chen, J., 2004. Present status and prospects of sea cucumber industry in China. FAO Document Repository, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.
Choo, P. Z., 2008. Population status, fisheries and trade of sea
cucumbers in Asia. In Toral-Granda, V., Lovatelli, A., and
Vasconcellos, M. (eds.), Sea Cucumbers. A Global Review of
Fisheries and Trade. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, Vol.
516, pp. 81–118.
Clark, J. E., Pritchett, M., and Hebert, K., 2009. Status of Sea
Cucumber Stocks in Southeast Alaska and Evaluation of the
Stock Assessment Program. Anchorage: Alaska Fish and Game.
Fishery Data Series, Vol. 09–12.
Dumbauld, B. R., Ruesink, J. L., and Rumrill, S. S., 2009. The ecological role of bivalve aquaculture in the estuarine environment:
a review with application to oyster and clam culture in West
Coast (USA) estuaries. Aquaculture, 290, 196–223.
FAO, 2012. The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture.
Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations, ISBN 978-92-5-107225-7, p. 22
Fogarty, M. J., and Lipcius, R. N., 2007. Population dynamics and
fisheries. In Kennedy, V. S., and Cronin, L. E. (eds.), The Blue
Crab Callinectes sapidus. Maryland: Maryland Sea Grant Book,
pp. 711–755.
Gosling, E., 2003. Bivalve Molluscs Biology, Ecology and Culture.
Oxford: Blackwell Science, Fishing News Books.
Leverone, J. R., Geiger, S. P., Stephenson, S. P., and Arnold, W. S.,
2010. Increase in bay scallop (Argopecten irradians)
populations following releases of competent larvae in two west
Florida estuaries. Journal of Shellfish Research, 29, 395–406.
Mistiaen, J. M., Strand, I. V., and Lipton, D., 2003. Effects of environmental stress on blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) harvests in
Chesapeake Bay tributaries. Estuaries, 26, 316–322.
Pillans, S., Pillans, R. D., Johnstone, R. W., Krafft, P. G., Haywood,
D. E., and Possingham, H. P., 2005. Effects of marine reserve
protection on the mud crab Scylla serrata in a sex-biased fishery
in subtropical Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 295,
201–213.
Roth, B. M., Rose, K. A., Rozas, L. P., and Minello, T. J., 2008. Relative influence of habitat fragmentation and inundation on
brown shrimp Farfantepenaeus aztecus production in northern
Gulf of Mexico salt marshes. Marine Ecology Progress Series,
359, 185–202.
Seed, R., and Suchanek, T. H., 1992. Population and community
ecology of Mytilus. In Gosling, E. M. (ed.), The Mussel Mytilus:
Ecology Physiology, Genetics and Culture. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, pp. 87–169.
Shumway, S. E., and Parsons, G. J. (eds.), 2006. Scallops: Biology,
Ecology and Aquaculture. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Trino, A. T., and Rodriguez, E. M., 2002. Pen culture of mud crab
Scylla serrata in tidal flats reforested with mangrove trees.
Aquaculture, 211, 125–134.
Zhang, Q.L., and Liu, Y.H., 1998. The Techniques of Sea Cucumber
Culture and its Enhancement. China: Ocean University
Publishing House.
Cross-references
Bivalve Aquaculture
Estuarine Habitat Restoration
SHELLFISH PRODUCTION
577