Tomlinson, P. B., 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Treherne, J. E., and Foster, W. A., 1979. Adaptive strategies of airbreathing arthropods from marine salt marshes. In Jefferies, R. L.
and Davy, A. J. (eds.), Ecological Processes in Coastal
Environments. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 165–173.
Tyrrell, M. C., Dionne, M., and Everhardt, S. A., 2012. Salt marsh
fucoid algae: overlooked ecosystem engineers of north temperate salt marshes. Estuaries and Coasts, 35, 754–762.
Underwood, G. J. C., 2000. Changes in microalgal species composition, biostabilisation potential and succession during saltmarsh
restoration. In Sherwood, B. R., Gardner, B. G., and Harris, T.
(eds.), British Saltmarshes. Tresaith: Forrest Text, pp. 143–154.
Valiela, I., Bowen, J. L., Cole, M. L., Kroeger, K. D., Lawrence, D.,
Pabich, W. J., Tomasky, G., and Mazzilli, S., 2001. Following up
on a Margalevian concept: interactions and exchanges among
adjacent parcels of coastal landscapes. Scientia Marina, 65(supplement 2), 215–229.
van de Koppel, J., Bouma, T. J., and Herman, P. M. J., 2012. The
influence of local and landscape-scale processes on spatial selforganisation in estuarine ecosystems. Journal of Experimental
Biology, 216, 962–967.
Vasquez, E. A., Glenn, E. P., Brown, J. J., Guntenspergen, G. R.,
and Nelson, S. G., 2005. Salt tolerance underlies the cryptic
invasion of North American salt marshes by an introduced haplotype of the common reed Phragmites australis (Poaceae).
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 298, 1–8.
Walling, D. E., 2006. Human impact on land-ocean sediment transfers by the world’s rivers. Geomorphology, 79, 192–216.
Walling, D. E., 2008. The sediment load of the world’s rivers.
Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SG GW Land
Reclamation, 39, 3–20.
Whitcraft, C. R., Talley, P. M., Crooks, J. A., Boland, J., and Gaskin,
J., 2007. Invasion of Tamarisk (Tamarix spp.), in a southern California salt marsh. Biological Invasions, 9, 875–879.
Wolanski, E., Brinson, M. M., Cahoon, D. R., and Perillo, G. M. E.,
2009. Coastal wetlands: a synthesis. In Perillo, G. M. E.,
Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D. R., and Brinson, M. M. (eds.), Coastal
Wetlands. An Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
Woodell, S. R. J., 1974. Anthill vegetation in a Norfolk saltmarsh.
Oecologia(Berlin), 16, 221–225.
Yang, S. L., Shi, B. W., Bouma, T. J., Ysebaert, T., and Lou, X. X.,
2012. Wave attenuation of a salt marsh margin: a case study of an
exposed coast on the Yangtze estuary. Estuaries and Coasts, 35,
169–182.
Yapp, R. H., Johns, D., and Jones, O. T., 1917. The salt marshes of
the Dovey estuary. Part II. The salt marshes (by R. H. Yapp and
D. Johns). Journal of Ecology, 5, 65–103.
Zedler, J. B. (ed.), 2001. Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Cross-references
Anthropogenic Impacts
Climate Change
Coastal Wetlands
Estuarine Habitat Restoration
Introduced Species
Invasive Species
Mangroves
Salt Marsh Accretion
Sea-Level Change and Coastal Wetlands
Shorebirds
Species Zonation
SAND MINING/BEACH SAND MINING
Paul A. Work
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
Definition
Extraction of sand from, typically, a natural deposit, for
use at a different location. It is most often performed for
land reclamation, beach nourishment, or procurement of
material for construction (particularly for concrete) or
industrial uses (such as sandpaper or foundry supply).
The sand source is often a terrestrial dune or hill,
a riverbed, a beach, or an offshore deposit. Spoil resulting
from dredging operations conducted for other purposes
can be used beneficially, representing a form of sand
mining.
Introduction
Sand is heavily utilized in the construction industry as
a major ingredient in concrete (often 25 % by volume;
Kosmatka and Wilson, 2011). Being widely available,
inexpensive, durable, and even pourable, it also has many
other industrial uses, particularly as part of an abrasive
system such as sandpaper. It is widely used in foundries
and for making glass and ceramics.
In some cases the harvested sand is processed for
extraction of selected minerals, including titanium and zirconium, and, on selected Namibian beaches, diamonds.
Many of the world’s beaches are comprised primarily of
quartz and feldspar sands, but it is not uncommon to find
other minerals of value such as zircon (zirconium oxide)
mixed in with these grains. The sands can be mined to
remove the heavy minerals of interest in such a case.
Sand is still mined from beaches, but this practice is
prohibited in many locations because it results in what is
essentially anthropogenic beach erosion and is therefore
undesirable. Environmental issues such as the effects of
enhanced turbidity or exposure of contaminants that arise
from mining activities should also be considered before
undertaking sand mining (e.g., Meador and Layher, 1998).
Since sand is found, and used, worldwide, sand mining
also takes place on a global scale. Different types of sands
are utilized for different purposes (concrete, foundry
sands, etc.). Most of the marine sand mining occurring
on the US Atlantic and Gulf coasts is for beach nourishment purposes. It has been estimated that the volume excavated for this purpose in the twentieth century is on the
order of 650 million cubic meters (Finkl and Hobbs,
2009). This is larger than the volume of Lake Erie.
Techniques
A wide variety of techniques can be employed for sand
mining. Marine sand mining is usually accomplished with
the same types of equipment used for dredging projects,
SAND MINING/BEACH SAND MINING
535
Cambridge University Press.
Treherne, J. E., and Foster, W. A., 1979. Adaptive strategies of airbreathing arthropods from marine salt marshes. In Jefferies, R. L.
and Davy, A. J. (eds.), Ecological Processes in Coastal
Environments. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 165–173.
Tyrrell, M. C., Dionne, M., and Everhardt, S. A., 2012. Salt marsh
fucoid algae: overlooked ecosystem engineers of north temperate salt marshes. Estuaries and Coasts, 35, 754–762.
Underwood, G. J. C., 2000. Changes in microalgal species composition, biostabilisation potential and succession during saltmarsh
restoration. In Sherwood, B. R., Gardner, B. G., and Harris, T.
(eds.), British Saltmarshes. Tresaith: Forrest Text, pp. 143–154.
Valiela, I., Bowen, J. L., Cole, M. L., Kroeger, K. D., Lawrence, D.,
Pabich, W. J., Tomasky, G., and Mazzilli, S., 2001. Following up
on a Margalevian concept: interactions and exchanges among
adjacent parcels of coastal landscapes. Scientia Marina, 65(supplement 2), 215–229.
van de Koppel, J., Bouma, T. J., and Herman, P. M. J., 2012. The
influence of local and landscape-scale processes on spatial selforganisation in estuarine ecosystems. Journal of Experimental
Biology, 216, 962–967.
Vasquez, E. A., Glenn, E. P., Brown, J. J., Guntenspergen, G. R.,
and Nelson, S. G., 2005. Salt tolerance underlies the cryptic
invasion of North American salt marshes by an introduced haplotype of the common reed Phragmites australis (Poaceae).
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 298, 1–8.
Walling, D. E., 2006. Human impact on land-ocean sediment transfers by the world’s rivers. Geomorphology, 79, 192–216.
Walling, D. E., 2008. The sediment load of the world’s rivers.
Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SG GW Land
Reclamation, 39, 3–20.
Whitcraft, C. R., Talley, P. M., Crooks, J. A., Boland, J., and Gaskin,
J., 2007. Invasion of Tamarisk (Tamarix spp.), in a southern California salt marsh. Biological Invasions, 9, 875–879.
Wolanski, E., Brinson, M. M., Cahoon, D. R., and Perillo, G. M. E.,
2009. Coastal wetlands: a synthesis. In Perillo, G. M. E.,
Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D. R., and Brinson, M. M. (eds.), Coastal
Wetlands. An Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
Woodell, S. R. J., 1974. Anthill vegetation in a Norfolk saltmarsh.
Oecologia(Berlin), 16, 221–225.
Yang, S. L., Shi, B. W., Bouma, T. J., Ysebaert, T., and Lou, X. X.,
2012. Wave attenuation of a salt marsh margin: a case study of an
exposed coast on the Yangtze estuary. Estuaries and Coasts, 35,
169–182.
Yapp, R. H., Johns, D., and Jones, O. T., 1917. The salt marshes of
the Dovey estuary. Part II. The salt marshes (by R. H. Yapp and
D. Johns). Journal of Ecology, 5, 65–103.
Zedler, J. B. (ed.), 2001. Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Cross-references
Anthropogenic Impacts
Climate Change
Coastal Wetlands
Estuarine Habitat Restoration
Introduced Species
Invasive Species
Mangroves
Salt Marsh Accretion
Sea-Level Change and Coastal Wetlands
Shorebirds
Species Zonation
SAND MINING/BEACH SAND MINING
Paul A. Work
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
Definition
Extraction of sand from, typically, a natural deposit, for
use at a different location. It is most often performed for
land reclamation, beach nourishment, or procurement of
material for construction (particularly for concrete) or
industrial uses (such as sandpaper or foundry supply).
The sand source is often a terrestrial dune or hill,
a riverbed, a beach, or an offshore deposit. Spoil resulting
from dredging operations conducted for other purposes
can be used beneficially, representing a form of sand
mining.
Introduction
Sand is heavily utilized in the construction industry as
a major ingredient in concrete (often 25 % by volume;
Kosmatka and Wilson, 2011). Being widely available,
inexpensive, durable, and even pourable, it also has many
other industrial uses, particularly as part of an abrasive
system such as sandpaper. It is widely used in foundries
and for making glass and ceramics.
In some cases the harvested sand is processed for
extraction of selected minerals, including titanium and zirconium, and, on selected Namibian beaches, diamonds.
Many of the world’s beaches are comprised primarily of
quartz and feldspar sands, but it is not uncommon to find
other minerals of value such as zircon (zirconium oxide)
mixed in with these grains. The sands can be mined to
remove the heavy minerals of interest in such a case.
Sand is still mined from beaches, but this practice is
prohibited in many locations because it results in what is
essentially anthropogenic beach erosion and is therefore
undesirable. Environmental issues such as the effects of
enhanced turbidity or exposure of contaminants that arise
from mining activities should also be considered before
undertaking sand mining (e.g., Meador and Layher, 1998).
Since sand is found, and used, worldwide, sand mining
also takes place on a global scale. Different types of sands
are utilized for different purposes (concrete, foundry
sands, etc.). Most of the marine sand mining occurring
on the US Atlantic and Gulf coasts is for beach nourishment purposes. It has been estimated that the volume excavated for this purpose in the twentieth century is on the
order of 650 million cubic meters (Finkl and Hobbs,
2009). This is larger than the volume of Lake Erie.
Techniques
A wide variety of techniques can be employed for sand
mining. Marine sand mining is usually accomplished with
the same types of equipment used for dredging projects,
SAND MINING/BEACH SAND MINING
535