Jumars, P. A., and Wheatcroft, R. A., 1989. Responses of benthos to
changing food quality and quantity, with a focus on deposit feeding and bioturbation. In Berger, W. H., Smetacek, V. S., and
Wefer, G. (eds.), Productivity of the Ocean: Present and Past.
New York: Wiley, pp. 235–253.
Kenny, A. J., and Sotheran, I., 2013. Characterizing the physical
properties of seabed habitats. In Eleftheriou, A. (ed.), Methods
for the Study of Marine Benthos. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 47–96.
Köster, M., Dahlke, S., and Meyer-Reil, L.-A., 1997. Microbiological studies along a gradient of eutrophication in a shallow
coastal inlet in the southern Baltic Sea (Nordrügensche Bodden).
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 152, 27–39.
Köster, M., Dahlke, S., and Meyer-Reil, L.-A., 2005. Microbial colonization and activity in relation to organic carbon in sediments
of hypertrophic coastal waters (Nordrügensche Bodden, Southern Baltic Sea). Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 39, 69–83.
Krumbein, W. C., and Monk, G. D., 1942. Permeability as
a function of the size parameters of unconsolidated sands. American Institute of Mineral and Metallurgical Engineering, Technical Publication, 1492, 1–11.
Lambe, W. T., 1951. Soil Testing for Engineers. New York: Wiley.
Lambe, W. T., and Whitman, R. V., 1969. Soil Mechanics. New
York: Wiley.
Leipe, T., Tauber, F., Vallius, H., Virtasalo, J., Uścinovicz, S.,
Kowalski, N., Hille, S., Lindgren, S., and Myllyvirta, T., 2011.
Particulate organic carbon (POC) in surface sediments of the
Baltic Sea. Geo-Marine Letters, 31, 175–188.
L’Esperance, J. C., Boudreau, B. P., Barry, M. A., and Johnson,
B. D., 2013. Small-scale, high-precision and high-accuracy
determination of Poisson’s ratios in cohesive marine sediments.
Geo-Marine Letters, 33, 75–81.
Maxted, J. R., Eskin, R. A., Weisberg, S. B., and Kutz, F. W., 1997.
The ecological condition of dead-end canals of the Delaware and
Maryland coastal bays. Estuaries, 20, 319–327.
Meadows, P. S., and Meadows, A., 1991. The geotechnical and
geochemical implications of bioturbation in marine sedimentary
systems. Zoological Society of London, Symposium, 63, 157–181.
Mitchell, J. K., 1976. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior. New York:
Wiley.
Müller, G., and Gastner, M., 1971. The ‘Karbonat-Bombe’, a simple
device for the determination of carbonate content in sediment,
soils, and other materials. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
Monatshefte, 10, 466–469.
Mulsow, S., Boudreau, B. P., and Smith, J. N., 1998. Bioturbation
and porosity gradients. Limnology and Oceanography, 43, 1–9.
Paarlberg, A. J., Knaapen, M. A. F., de Vries, M. B., Hulscher,
S. J. M. H., and Wang, Z. B., 2005. Biological influences on
morphology and bed composition of an intertidal flat. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 64, 577–590.
Pearson, T. H., and Rosenberg, R., 1978. Macrobenthic succession
in relation to organic enrichment and pollution of the marine
environment. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual
Review, 16, 229–311.
Perkins, R. G., Honeywill, C., Consalvey, M., Austin, H., Tolhurst,
T. J., and Paterson, D. M., 2003. Changes in microphytobenthic
chlorophyll a resulting from sediment compaction due to
de-watering: opposing patterns in concentration and content.
Continental Shelf Research, 23, 575–586.
Selley, R. C., 1985. Elements of Petroleum Geology. New York:
Freeman.
Snelgrove, P. V. R., and Butman, C. A., 1994. Animal-sediment
relationships revisited: cause versus effect. Oceanography and
Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 32, 111–177.
Tolhurst, T. J., Underwood, A. J., Perkins, R. G., and Chapman,
M. G., 2005. Content versus concentration: effects of units on
measuring the biogeochemical properties of soft sediments.
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 63, 665–673.
Tolhurst, T. J., Consalvey, M., and Paterson, D. M., 2008. Changes
in cohesive sediment properties associated with the growth of
a diatom biofilm. Hydrobiologia, 596, 225–239.
Underwood, A. J., and Chapman, M. G., 2013. Design and analysis
in benthic surveys in environmental sampling. In Eleftheriou,
A. (ed.), Methods for the Study of Marine Benthos. Chichester:
Wiley, pp. 1–46.
UNESCO, 1985. The International System of Units (SI) in Oceanography. Unesco Technical Papers in Marine Science, 45.
Warrick, A. W. (ed.), 2002. Soil Physics Companion. Boca Raton:
CRC Press.
Williams, P. J. le B., 2004. Meters, kilograms, seconds, but not bomb
units. A zero tolerance approach to units. (With apologies to Lynne
Truss). Limnology and Oceanography Bulletin, 13, 29–32.
Cross-references
Benthic Ecology
Estuarine Sediment Composition
Infauna
Marsh Sediment Toxicity
Nonpoint Source Pollution
Sandflat
Sediment Budgets
Sediment Compaction
Sediment Grain Size
Species Richness
Species Zonation
Subaqueous Soils
MEAN SEA LEVEL
Abdullah BaMasoud
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies,
Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Synonyms
Average sea surface height
Definition
Mean sea level (MSL) is the datum representing the average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide,
typically computed by local hourly water level heights
over a 19-year period.
Description
The mean sea level is used as a reference for dry-land elevations. It varies slightly from one place to another on
earth because the sea surface conforms to the earth’s gravitational field, which varies from place to place. Using satellite altimeters, mean sea level changes across the globe
are measured and averaged to detect trends in the global
mean sea level as an indicator of climate change. Mean
sea level changes over short and long time periods. Tides,
winds, and seasonal variations are examples of causes of
short-term changes. Climate change, uplift, and subsidence of the earth’s surface are examples of causes of
long-term changes. For example, 20,000 years ago during
the last ice age, the mean sea level was $120 m below
432
MEAN SEA LEVEL
changing food quality and quantity, with a focus on deposit feeding and bioturbation. In Berger, W. H., Smetacek, V. S., and
Wefer, G. (eds.), Productivity of the Ocean: Present and Past.
New York: Wiley, pp. 235–253.
Kenny, A. J., and Sotheran, I., 2013. Characterizing the physical
properties of seabed habitats. In Eleftheriou, A. (ed.), Methods
for the Study of Marine Benthos. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 47–96.
Köster, M., Dahlke, S., and Meyer-Reil, L.-A., 1997. Microbiological studies along a gradient of eutrophication in a shallow
coastal inlet in the southern Baltic Sea (Nordrügensche Bodden).
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 152, 27–39.
Köster, M., Dahlke, S., and Meyer-Reil, L.-A., 2005. Microbial colonization and activity in relation to organic carbon in sediments
of hypertrophic coastal waters (Nordrügensche Bodden, Southern Baltic Sea). Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 39, 69–83.
Krumbein, W. C., and Monk, G. D., 1942. Permeability as
a function of the size parameters of unconsolidated sands. American Institute of Mineral and Metallurgical Engineering, Technical Publication, 1492, 1–11.
Lambe, W. T., 1951. Soil Testing for Engineers. New York: Wiley.
Lambe, W. T., and Whitman, R. V., 1969. Soil Mechanics. New
York: Wiley.
Leipe, T., Tauber, F., Vallius, H., Virtasalo, J., Uścinovicz, S.,
Kowalski, N., Hille, S., Lindgren, S., and Myllyvirta, T., 2011.
Particulate organic carbon (POC) in surface sediments of the
Baltic Sea. Geo-Marine Letters, 31, 175–188.
L’Esperance, J. C., Boudreau, B. P., Barry, M. A., and Johnson,
B. D., 2013. Small-scale, high-precision and high-accuracy
determination of Poisson’s ratios in cohesive marine sediments.
Geo-Marine Letters, 33, 75–81.
Maxted, J. R., Eskin, R. A., Weisberg, S. B., and Kutz, F. W., 1997.
The ecological condition of dead-end canals of the Delaware and
Maryland coastal bays. Estuaries, 20, 319–327.
Meadows, P. S., and Meadows, A., 1991. The geotechnical and
geochemical implications of bioturbation in marine sedimentary
systems. Zoological Society of London, Symposium, 63, 157–181.
Mitchell, J. K., 1976. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior. New York:
Wiley.
Müller, G., and Gastner, M., 1971. The ‘Karbonat-Bombe’, a simple
device for the determination of carbonate content in sediment,
soils, and other materials. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
Monatshefte, 10, 466–469.
Mulsow, S., Boudreau, B. P., and Smith, J. N., 1998. Bioturbation
and porosity gradients. Limnology and Oceanography, 43, 1–9.
Paarlberg, A. J., Knaapen, M. A. F., de Vries, M. B., Hulscher,
S. J. M. H., and Wang, Z. B., 2005. Biological influences on
morphology and bed composition of an intertidal flat. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 64, 577–590.
Pearson, T. H., and Rosenberg, R., 1978. Macrobenthic succession
in relation to organic enrichment and pollution of the marine
environment. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual
Review, 16, 229–311.
Perkins, R. G., Honeywill, C., Consalvey, M., Austin, H., Tolhurst,
T. J., and Paterson, D. M., 2003. Changes in microphytobenthic
chlorophyll a resulting from sediment compaction due to
de-watering: opposing patterns in concentration and content.
Continental Shelf Research, 23, 575–586.
Selley, R. C., 1985. Elements of Petroleum Geology. New York:
Freeman.
Snelgrove, P. V. R., and Butman, C. A., 1994. Animal-sediment
relationships revisited: cause versus effect. Oceanography and
Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 32, 111–177.
Tolhurst, T. J., Underwood, A. J., Perkins, R. G., and Chapman,
M. G., 2005. Content versus concentration: effects of units on
measuring the biogeochemical properties of soft sediments.
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 63, 665–673.
Tolhurst, T. J., Consalvey, M., and Paterson, D. M., 2008. Changes
in cohesive sediment properties associated with the growth of
a diatom biofilm. Hydrobiologia, 596, 225–239.
Underwood, A. J., and Chapman, M. G., 2013. Design and analysis
in benthic surveys in environmental sampling. In Eleftheriou,
A. (ed.), Methods for the Study of Marine Benthos. Chichester:
Wiley, pp. 1–46.
UNESCO, 1985. The International System of Units (SI) in Oceanography. Unesco Technical Papers in Marine Science, 45.
Warrick, A. W. (ed.), 2002. Soil Physics Companion. Boca Raton:
CRC Press.
Williams, P. J. le B., 2004. Meters, kilograms, seconds, but not bomb
units. A zero tolerance approach to units. (With apologies to Lynne
Truss). Limnology and Oceanography Bulletin, 13, 29–32.
Cross-references
Benthic Ecology
Estuarine Sediment Composition
Infauna
Marsh Sediment Toxicity
Nonpoint Source Pollution
Sandflat
Sediment Budgets
Sediment Compaction
Sediment Grain Size
Species Richness
Species Zonation
Subaqueous Soils
MEAN SEA LEVEL
Abdullah BaMasoud
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies,
Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Synonyms
Average sea surface height
Definition
Mean sea level (MSL) is the datum representing the average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide,
typically computed by local hourly water level heights
over a 19-year period.
Description
The mean sea level is used as a reference for dry-land elevations. It varies slightly from one place to another on
earth because the sea surface conforms to the earth’s gravitational field, which varies from place to place. Using satellite altimeters, mean sea level changes across the globe
are measured and averaged to detect trends in the global
mean sea level as an indicator of climate change. Mean
sea level changes over short and long time periods. Tides,
winds, and seasonal variations are examples of causes of
short-term changes. Climate change, uplift, and subsidence of the earth’s surface are examples of causes of
long-term changes. For example, 20,000 years ago during
the last ice age, the mean sea level was $120 m below
432
MEAN SEA LEVEL