International efforts in the mid-twentieth century to
standardize geomorphic mapping techniques and symbols
resulted in some improved consistency in the presentation
of content (see the IGU Unified Key (1968) and St. Onge
(1968) for standardized symbol sets from that period).
Despite this effort, departures from the standard representation of information on geomorphic maps continue
because of the proliferation of digital data used to produce
specialized maps for diverse purposes (i.e., hydrology,
land-use planning, disaster and hazard management, and
land-surface evolution).
In recent years, the increased availability of highresolution remotely sensed data has shifted the balance
of mapping efforts from symbolic depictions on traditional paper maps to the realm of modeling and geographic information system (GIS) software (see
Proceedings of 41st Binghamton Geomorphology
Symposium, James et al., 2012). Modern geomorphic
mapping often relies on the mathematical and statistical
analyses of thematic data covering the same geographic
domain at multiple spatial and temporal resolutions. Like
a traditional paper-based geomorphological map, digital
geomorphic mapping allows for the organization of geomorphic data into hierarchical classes with spatially and
temporally variable properties and geometric relationships. However, digital geomorphological maps can
provide a more complete geometric and multi-scale
description of landforms and processes via generalization
and decomposition procedures that emphasize unique
aspects of the landscape.
Bibliography
I.G.U. Commission on Applied Geomorphology, 1968. The unified
key to the detailed geomorphological map of the world. 1:
25,000–1:50,000. I.G.U. Commission on Applied Geomorphology. Subcommission on Geomorphological Mapping. Krakow:
Union Geographique Internationale.
James, L. A., Bishop, M. P., and Walsh, S. J. (eds.), 2012.
Geospatial technologies and geomorphological mapping: proceedings of the 41st annual Binghamton geomorphology symposium. Geomorphology, 137, 1–198.
Knight, J., Mitchell, W. A., and Rose, J., 2011. Geomorphological
field mapping. In Smith, M. J., Paron, P., and Griffiths, J. S.
(eds.), Developments in Earth Surface Processes. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, pp. 151–187.
Pavlopoulos, K., Evelpidou, N., and Vassilopoulos, A., 2009. Mapping Geomorphological Environments. Berlin: Springer.
Smith, M. J., 2011. Digital mapping: visualization, interpretation
and quantification of landforms. In Smith, M. J., Paron, P., and
Griffiths, J. S. (eds.), Developments in Earth Surface Processes.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 225–251.
St-Onge, D. A., 1968. Geomorphic maps. In Fairbridge, R. W. (ed.),
The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. New York: Reinhold,
pp. 388–402.
Verstappen, H. T., 2011. Old and new trends in geomorphological
and landform mapping. In Smith, M. J., Paron, P., and Griffiths,
J. S. (eds.), Developments in Earth Surface Processes.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 13–38.
GLACIATED ESTUARINE SYSTEMS
Michael A. O’Neal
Department of Geological Sciences, University of
Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
Synonyms
Fjord
Definition
Glaciated estuarine systems are inundated transition zones
between rivers and marine waters in areas that have been
directly modified by glaciers.
Physiography
Glaciated estuarine systems may refer to both (1) narrow,
overdeepened, steep-sided glacial troughs generally
referred to as fjords and (2) eustatically drowned
low-relief landscapes once covered by glaciers. While
fjords display pronounced relief characteristics from glacial erosion, the effects of a glacier on the estuary may also
be depositional. For example, many estuaries in the
Pacific Northwest, northeastern North America, and
northern Europe are characterized by low-relief landforms
and/or sediments directly deposited by Pleistocene
glaciers.
Cross-references
Fjord
GLACIATED ESTUARINE SYSTEMS
345
standardize geomorphic mapping techniques and symbols
resulted in some improved consistency in the presentation
of content (see the IGU Unified Key (1968) and St. Onge
(1968) for standardized symbol sets from that period).
Despite this effort, departures from the standard representation of information on geomorphic maps continue
because of the proliferation of digital data used to produce
specialized maps for diverse purposes (i.e., hydrology,
land-use planning, disaster and hazard management, and
land-surface evolution).
In recent years, the increased availability of highresolution remotely sensed data has shifted the balance
of mapping efforts from symbolic depictions on traditional paper maps to the realm of modeling and geographic information system (GIS) software (see
Proceedings of 41st Binghamton Geomorphology
Symposium, James et al., 2012). Modern geomorphic
mapping often relies on the mathematical and statistical
analyses of thematic data covering the same geographic
domain at multiple spatial and temporal resolutions. Like
a traditional paper-based geomorphological map, digital
geomorphic mapping allows for the organization of geomorphic data into hierarchical classes with spatially and
temporally variable properties and geometric relationships. However, digital geomorphological maps can
provide a more complete geometric and multi-scale
description of landforms and processes via generalization
and decomposition procedures that emphasize unique
aspects of the landscape.
Bibliography
I.G.U. Commission on Applied Geomorphology, 1968. The unified
key to the detailed geomorphological map of the world. 1:
25,000–1:50,000. I.G.U. Commission on Applied Geomorphology. Subcommission on Geomorphological Mapping. Krakow:
Union Geographique Internationale.
James, L. A., Bishop, M. P., and Walsh, S. J. (eds.), 2012.
Geospatial technologies and geomorphological mapping: proceedings of the 41st annual Binghamton geomorphology symposium. Geomorphology, 137, 1–198.
Knight, J., Mitchell, W. A., and Rose, J., 2011. Geomorphological
field mapping. In Smith, M. J., Paron, P., and Griffiths, J. S.
(eds.), Developments in Earth Surface Processes. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, pp. 151–187.
Pavlopoulos, K., Evelpidou, N., and Vassilopoulos, A., 2009. Mapping Geomorphological Environments. Berlin: Springer.
Smith, M. J., 2011. Digital mapping: visualization, interpretation
and quantification of landforms. In Smith, M. J., Paron, P., and
Griffiths, J. S. (eds.), Developments in Earth Surface Processes.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 225–251.
St-Onge, D. A., 1968. Geomorphic maps. In Fairbridge, R. W. (ed.),
The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. New York: Reinhold,
pp. 388–402.
Verstappen, H. T., 2011. Old and new trends in geomorphological
and landform mapping. In Smith, M. J., Paron, P., and Griffiths,
J. S. (eds.), Developments in Earth Surface Processes.
Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 13–38.
GLACIATED ESTUARINE SYSTEMS
Michael A. O’Neal
Department of Geological Sciences, University of
Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
Synonyms
Fjord
Definition
Glaciated estuarine systems are inundated transition zones
between rivers and marine waters in areas that have been
directly modified by glaciers.
Physiography
Glaciated estuarine systems may refer to both (1) narrow,
overdeepened, steep-sided glacial troughs generally
referred to as fjords and (2) eustatically drowned
low-relief landscapes once covered by glaciers. While
fjords display pronounced relief characteristics from glacial erosion, the effects of a glacier on the estuary may also
be depositional. For example, many estuaries in the
Pacific Northwest, northeastern North America, and
northern Europe are characterized by low-relief landforms
and/or sediments directly deposited by Pleistocene
glaciers.
Cross-references
Fjord
GLACIATED ESTUARINE SYSTEMS
345