Implementation
Implementation means construction and begins with any
required assessments, such as evaluating any onsite contamination. Construction is monitored by someone who
is aware of the project goals to ensure that decisions made
during construction result in the improvement of the system toward the goals.
Monitoring
Monitoring provides direct feedback about the development of the restored system with respect to established
performance criteria. Appropriate field sampling methods
are selected as needed for each performance criterion and
metric. The selection of appropriate reference or control
sites in the vicinity of the restoration project is also critical
to the analysis of the monitoring data to identify trends
that are not project-related. The NRC (1992, 2001)
recommended that, when assessing change in a restored
system over time, restoration monitoring programs should
use science-based procedures and apply the following
guidelines:
• Link assessment criteria to the goals and objectives of
the project.
• Assess important wetland processes and functions or
scientifically established structural surrogates.
• Base criteria on known conditions of the target or reference ecosystem.
• Establish assessment criteria before monitoring takes
place and provide an indication of the expected degree
of similarity between restored and reference sites.
• Incorporate the effects of position in the landscape.
• Choose criteria that are sensitive to temporal variation
and spatial heterogeneity.
• Compare assessment results to reference sites and longterm data sets.
• Generate parametric and dimensioned units, rather than
nonparametric rankings.
• Determine the monitoring period for reaching performance criteria a priori.
• Seek peer review for assessment criteria and methods.
The most specific guidance in the United States on the
selection of restored wetland monitoring parameters
comes from the NRC (1992, 2001), US Environmental
Protection Agency (Kusler and Kentula, 1990;
Kentula et al., 1992), Thom and Wellman (1996), Thayer
et al. (2003, 2005), and Borde et al. (in preparation). The
NRC (1992) recommended that for aquatic systems, at
least three parameters be selected representing physical,
hydrologic, and ecological features; too few parameters
may provide insufficient information to evaluate performance or information that is difficult to interpret.
There are three basic questions to ask when selecting
methods for monitoring: (1) does the method efficiently
provide accurate data on physical and biological parameters, (2) is the method repeatable, and (3) is the method
feasible within time and cost constraints? Any method
used should have a documented protocol. The timing,
frequency, and duration of monitoring are dependent on
system type, complexity, and uncertainty. The monitoring
program should be carried out according to a schedule that
includes the program start and end dates, the time of the
year during which field studies take place, and the frequency of field studies. Duration is dictated by the time
the restoration project will take to develop to a point where
it is clear that the project is meeting or will meet its goals.
Data management and dissemination of results
It is important to disseminate complete information about
the project as widely as possible (Hackney, 2000). Aspects
of the project are documented, and accurate and consistent
record keeping helps document the effects of decisions
and shows progress toward goals. Documentation benefits
future projects by providing information that can minimize cost and maximize the probability of success.
Adaptive management and project evaluation
Monitoring documents project progress and identifies any
problems that may affect achievement of the project goals.
If the monitoring program identifies any deviation from
the predicted trajectory of ecosystem development, adjustments can and should be made. Three general options are
available to the project manager: no action, maintenance
or modification of the system, and modification of the project goals. Adaptive management has been recommended
at a national level and is used on many major restoration
projects (e.g., Department of Interior, Williams et al.,
2009).
Site stewardship and maintenance
It has been well documented that long-term stewardship
and support are required to successfully restore estuarine
habitats. Restoration of estuarine habitats requires time
and vigilance to allow natural processes to reestablish
themselves, and the stewardship must balance ecological
and human needs (Borde et al., in preparation). As pressures on coastal systems increase, the need to maintain this
balance will also become of greater importance.
Models used in habitat restoration planning
Conceptual models, geographic information system
(GIS)-based models, operational numerical models, and
population models are used to help plan and implement
successful habitat restoration projects and programs.
Conceptual models
Conceptual models are used to develop performance
criteria from goals and objectives and understand
principal factors that control the development and maintenance of the habitat structure, the important habitat
characteristics, and the functions for which the habitat is
restored. Conceptual models help to forecast the effects
of restoration actions compared to expected changes if
no action is taken. The Chesapeake Bay Program
ESTUARINE HABITAT RESTORATION
281
Implementation means construction and begins with any
required assessments, such as evaluating any onsite contamination. Construction is monitored by someone who
is aware of the project goals to ensure that decisions made
during construction result in the improvement of the system toward the goals.
Monitoring
Monitoring provides direct feedback about the development of the restored system with respect to established
performance criteria. Appropriate field sampling methods
are selected as needed for each performance criterion and
metric. The selection of appropriate reference or control
sites in the vicinity of the restoration project is also critical
to the analysis of the monitoring data to identify trends
that are not project-related. The NRC (1992, 2001)
recommended that, when assessing change in a restored
system over time, restoration monitoring programs should
use science-based procedures and apply the following
guidelines:
• Link assessment criteria to the goals and objectives of
the project.
• Assess important wetland processes and functions or
scientifically established structural surrogates.
• Base criteria on known conditions of the target or reference ecosystem.
• Establish assessment criteria before monitoring takes
place and provide an indication of the expected degree
of similarity between restored and reference sites.
• Incorporate the effects of position in the landscape.
• Choose criteria that are sensitive to temporal variation
and spatial heterogeneity.
• Compare assessment results to reference sites and longterm data sets.
• Generate parametric and dimensioned units, rather than
nonparametric rankings.
• Determine the monitoring period for reaching performance criteria a priori.
• Seek peer review for assessment criteria and methods.
The most specific guidance in the United States on the
selection of restored wetland monitoring parameters
comes from the NRC (1992, 2001), US Environmental
Protection Agency (Kusler and Kentula, 1990;
Kentula et al., 1992), Thom and Wellman (1996), Thayer
et al. (2003, 2005), and Borde et al. (in preparation). The
NRC (1992) recommended that for aquatic systems, at
least three parameters be selected representing physical,
hydrologic, and ecological features; too few parameters
may provide insufficient information to evaluate performance or information that is difficult to interpret.
There are three basic questions to ask when selecting
methods for monitoring: (1) does the method efficiently
provide accurate data on physical and biological parameters, (2) is the method repeatable, and (3) is the method
feasible within time and cost constraints? Any method
used should have a documented protocol. The timing,
frequency, and duration of monitoring are dependent on
system type, complexity, and uncertainty. The monitoring
program should be carried out according to a schedule that
includes the program start and end dates, the time of the
year during which field studies take place, and the frequency of field studies. Duration is dictated by the time
the restoration project will take to develop to a point where
it is clear that the project is meeting or will meet its goals.
Data management and dissemination of results
It is important to disseminate complete information about
the project as widely as possible (Hackney, 2000). Aspects
of the project are documented, and accurate and consistent
record keeping helps document the effects of decisions
and shows progress toward goals. Documentation benefits
future projects by providing information that can minimize cost and maximize the probability of success.
Adaptive management and project evaluation
Monitoring documents project progress and identifies any
problems that may affect achievement of the project goals.
If the monitoring program identifies any deviation from
the predicted trajectory of ecosystem development, adjustments can and should be made. Three general options are
available to the project manager: no action, maintenance
or modification of the system, and modification of the project goals. Adaptive management has been recommended
at a national level and is used on many major restoration
projects (e.g., Department of Interior, Williams et al.,
2009).
Site stewardship and maintenance
It has been well documented that long-term stewardship
and support are required to successfully restore estuarine
habitats. Restoration of estuarine habitats requires time
and vigilance to allow natural processes to reestablish
themselves, and the stewardship must balance ecological
and human needs (Borde et al., in preparation). As pressures on coastal systems increase, the need to maintain this
balance will also become of greater importance.
Models used in habitat restoration planning
Conceptual models, geographic information system
(GIS)-based models, operational numerical models, and
population models are used to help plan and implement
successful habitat restoration projects and programs.
Conceptual models
Conceptual models are used to develop performance
criteria from goals and objectives and understand
principal factors that control the development and maintenance of the habitat structure, the important habitat
characteristics, and the functions for which the habitat is
restored. Conceptual models help to forecast the effects
of restoration actions compared to expected changes if
no action is taken. The Chesapeake Bay Program
ESTUARINE HABITAT RESTORATION
281