Hall, C. M., and Page, S. J., 2006. The Geography of Tourism and
Recreation: Environment, Place, and Space, 3rd edn. New York:
Routledge.
Harris, R., Griffin, A., and Williams, P. (eds.), 2002. Sustainable
Tourism: A Global Perspective. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann and Elsevier Science Limited.
The International Ecotourism Society, 2013. (http://www.ecotourism.org/).
Cross-references
Beach Management
Estuary Conservation
EMERGENT SHORELINE
Nils-Axel Mörner
Paleogeophysics and Geodynamics, Saltsjöbaden, Sweden
Synonyms
Emerged coasts; Emergence; Raised beaches; Uplifted
shorelines
Definition
Emergent shorelines and coasts are those in the process of
being lifted out of the sea.
Emergence and emergent coasts occur when relative
sea level falls exposing new land. This process leaves
raised beaches or uplifted shorelines on the land lifted
out of the sea or exposed by a fall in sea level. Scandinavia, Scotland, and Canada are all classical areas of longterm emergence due to glacial isostatic uplift after the last
ice age (Mörner, 1979). The sequence of raised beaches
may take the form of continuous “staircases” of emerged
beaches such as in the Hudson Bay (Hillaire-Marcell and
Fairbridge, 1978). The highest glacial isostatically raised
shoreline is in Sweden at +294 m and dates at about
9300 C14 years BP. Seismotectonics may also generate
sequences of uplifted shorelines such as the famous
Turakirae shorelines in New Zealand (Wellman, 1967).
Coasts bordering subduction zones usually experience
crustal uplift and seismotectonics, giving rise to raised
beaches and emergent shorelines. This is the case in many
parts of Japan and along the Pacific coasts of North and
South America. In areas like New Guinea and Barbados,
the uplift has led to sequences of raised coral reefs
representing different interglacial sea level high-stands.
Bibliography
Hillaire-Marcell, C., and Fairbridge, R. W., 1978. Isostasy and
eustasy in Hudson Bay. Geology, 6, 117–122.
Mörner, N.-A., 1979. The Fennoscandian uplift and Late Cenozoic
geodynamics: geological evidence. GeoJournal, 3(3), 287–318.
Wellman, H. W., 1967. Tilted marine beach ridges at Cape
Turakirae, N.Z. In Ikebe, N. (ed.), Sea level changes and crustal
movements of the Pacific during the Pliocene and Post-Pliocene
time. Journal of Geosciences, 10, 123–129.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Karen Thorne
U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research
Center, Vallejo, CA, USA
Synonyms
Indigenous species; Native species
Definition
Endemic species are those that are unique or restricted to
a particular locality or geographical area and cannot be
found elsewhere.
The geographical location where endemic species are
found can vary in scale, including small habitat patches or
a defined zone, an island, or nation. Estuaries represent the
confluence of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems
creating large environmental variation and fluctuations,
which shape local adaptations and differentiation of taxa
resulting in endemic species (Greenberg, 2012). Factors that
influence differentiation and endemism include (1) abiotic
stressors that provide opportunities for specialized functions,
(2) degree of isolation from habitats (current and in the past),
and (3) local changes in the habitat over time. Estuarine
endemic species run a higher risk of extinction because of
their restricted area and pressure from human alterations that
include coastal development and modifications.
Bibliography
Greenberg, R., 2012. The ecology of estuarine wildlife. In Day,
J. W., Crump, B. C., Kemp, W. M., and Yanez-Arancibia,
A. (eds.), Estuarine Ecology, 2nd edn. New York: John Wiley
& Sons, pp. 357–380.
Cross-references
Exotic Species
Introduced Species
ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS
Mario Barletta and David Valença Dantas
Laboratório de Ecologia e Gerenciamento de
Ecossistemas Costeiros e Estuarinos, Departamento de
Oceanografia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco,
Recife, PE, Brazil
Definitions
Environmental gradients in estuaries refer to gradual
changes in abiotic factors and, consequently, in biotic factors, through space and time.
Ecotone is a transition area between two different habitats, ecosystems, or biomes.
Ecocline is a gradation from one ecosystem to another
when there is no sharp boundary between the two.
ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS
237
Recreation: Environment, Place, and Space, 3rd edn. New York:
Routledge.
Harris, R., Griffin, A., and Williams, P. (eds.), 2002. Sustainable
Tourism: A Global Perspective. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann and Elsevier Science Limited.
The International Ecotourism Society, 2013. (http://www.ecotourism.org/).
Cross-references
Beach Management
Estuary Conservation
EMERGENT SHORELINE
Nils-Axel Mörner
Paleogeophysics and Geodynamics, Saltsjöbaden, Sweden
Synonyms
Emerged coasts; Emergence; Raised beaches; Uplifted
shorelines
Definition
Emergent shorelines and coasts are those in the process of
being lifted out of the sea.
Emergence and emergent coasts occur when relative
sea level falls exposing new land. This process leaves
raised beaches or uplifted shorelines on the land lifted
out of the sea or exposed by a fall in sea level. Scandinavia, Scotland, and Canada are all classical areas of longterm emergence due to glacial isostatic uplift after the last
ice age (Mörner, 1979). The sequence of raised beaches
may take the form of continuous “staircases” of emerged
beaches such as in the Hudson Bay (Hillaire-Marcell and
Fairbridge, 1978). The highest glacial isostatically raised
shoreline is in Sweden at +294 m and dates at about
9300 C14 years BP. Seismotectonics may also generate
sequences of uplifted shorelines such as the famous
Turakirae shorelines in New Zealand (Wellman, 1967).
Coasts bordering subduction zones usually experience
crustal uplift and seismotectonics, giving rise to raised
beaches and emergent shorelines. This is the case in many
parts of Japan and along the Pacific coasts of North and
South America. In areas like New Guinea and Barbados,
the uplift has led to sequences of raised coral reefs
representing different interglacial sea level high-stands.
Bibliography
Hillaire-Marcell, C., and Fairbridge, R. W., 1978. Isostasy and
eustasy in Hudson Bay. Geology, 6, 117–122.
Mörner, N.-A., 1979. The Fennoscandian uplift and Late Cenozoic
geodynamics: geological evidence. GeoJournal, 3(3), 287–318.
Wellman, H. W., 1967. Tilted marine beach ridges at Cape
Turakirae, N.Z. In Ikebe, N. (ed.), Sea level changes and crustal
movements of the Pacific during the Pliocene and Post-Pliocene
time. Journal of Geosciences, 10, 123–129.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Karen Thorne
U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research
Center, Vallejo, CA, USA
Synonyms
Indigenous species; Native species
Definition
Endemic species are those that are unique or restricted to
a particular locality or geographical area and cannot be
found elsewhere.
The geographical location where endemic species are
found can vary in scale, including small habitat patches or
a defined zone, an island, or nation. Estuaries represent the
confluence of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems
creating large environmental variation and fluctuations,
which shape local adaptations and differentiation of taxa
resulting in endemic species (Greenberg, 2012). Factors that
influence differentiation and endemism include (1) abiotic
stressors that provide opportunities for specialized functions,
(2) degree of isolation from habitats (current and in the past),
and (3) local changes in the habitat over time. Estuarine
endemic species run a higher risk of extinction because of
their restricted area and pressure from human alterations that
include coastal development and modifications.
Bibliography
Greenberg, R., 2012. The ecology of estuarine wildlife. In Day,
J. W., Crump, B. C., Kemp, W. M., and Yanez-Arancibia,
A. (eds.), Estuarine Ecology, 2nd edn. New York: John Wiley
& Sons, pp. 357–380.
Cross-references
Exotic Species
Introduced Species
ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS
Mario Barletta and David Valença Dantas
Laboratório de Ecologia e Gerenciamento de
Ecossistemas Costeiros e Estuarinos, Departamento de
Oceanografia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco,
Recife, PE, Brazil
Definitions
Environmental gradients in estuaries refer to gradual
changes in abiotic factors and, consequently, in biotic factors, through space and time.
Ecotone is a transition area between two different habitats, ecosystems, or biomes.
Ecocline is a gradation from one ecosystem to another
when there is no sharp boundary between the two.
ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS
237