available and the hydrodynamic setting of the delta. The
richness and variety of stratigraphic types in intraestuarine deltas are due to (1) the provenance of the contributing rivers and types of sediment entering the estuary,
(2) seasonality and strength of river flow, (3) tides,
(4) wind and wind waves, and (5) climate. Climate plays
a part in the development of delta stratigraphy in that rainfall and evaporation determine the nature of the high-tidal
and supratidal lithologies and can determine if organic
matter-enriched sediment and/or peat forms the upper part
of the stratigraphy. Climate also determines the nature of
biota that contributes shelly material as gravel and sand.
Depending on whether deltaic sediments are dominated
by sand, or mud, or mixtures of sand and mud, or contain
gravel, and whether the delta is fluvial dominated, wave
dominated, or tide dominated, intra-estuarine deltas
exhibit a variety of stratigraphic types. Sand-dominated
deltas in fluvial-dominated conditions comprise a wedge
of sand, while under wave-dominated conditions comprise a wedge of sand of beach-to-beach ridges stacked
and prograded into the estuary, and those formed under
tide-dominated conditions show a sequence of tidealigned sand shoals, bars, and lenses aggraded to the level
of high tide and that have been covered by floodplain sand
deposits. The sand-and-mud-dominated deltas in fluvialdominated settings comprise a wedge of sand overlain
by muddy sand and in turn overlain by mud, while in
wave-dominated settings are a sheet of mud and muddy
sand deposited below the prevailing wave base with
a capping of sand of beach-to-beach ridges stacked and
prograded into the estuary. Those developed in tidedominated settings show a sequence of tide-aligned sand
shoals, bars, and lenses shoaled to the level of high tide
through lithologies of muddy sand and mud and covered
by floodplain mud deposits. Mud-dominated deltas in
fluvial-dominated conditions are a wedge of mud
prograded into the estuary, while those developed in
wave-dominated settings comprise a wedge of mud but
with local sand and gravel in sheets of muddy sand, lenses
of sand, and cheniers with mud accumulating below the
prevailing wave base. Mud-dominated deltas in tidedominated settings comprise a sequence of tide-aligned
mud shoals that aggrade to the level of high tide as mud
sheets and are covered by floodplain mud.
Bibliography
Allen, J. R. L., 1970. Sediments of the modern Niger Delta:
a summary and review. In Morgan, J. P. (ed.), Deltaic Sedimentation – Modern and Ancient. Tulsa, Okla: Society of Economic
Palaeontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication, Vol.
15, pp. 138–151.
Allen, G. P., and Posamentier, H. W., 1993. Sequence stratigraphy
and facies model of an incised valley fill; the Gironde Estuary,
France. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 63(3), 378–390.
Baker, E. K., Harris, P. T., Keene, J. B., and Short, S. A., 2009. Patterns of sedimentation in the macrotidal Fly River Delta, Papua
New Guinea. In Flemming, B. W., and Bartholomä, A. (eds.),
Tidal Signatures in Modern and Ancient Sediments. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
Bates, C. C., 1953. Rational theory of delta formation. Bulletin
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 37, 2119–2162.
Cameron, W. M., and Pritchard, D. W., 1963. Estuaries. In Hill, M. N.
(ed.), The Sea. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Vol. 2, pp. 306–324.
Coleman, J. M., 1976. Deltas: Processes of Deposition and Models
for Exploration. Champaign, Illinois: Continuing Education
Publication Company.
Coleman, J. M., and Wright, L. D., 1975. Modern river deltas: variability of processes and sand bodies. In Broussard, M. L. (ed.), Deltas –
Models for Exploration. Houston: Houston Geological Society.
Coleman, J. M., Gagliano, S. M., and Smith, W. G., 1970. Sedimentation in a Malaysian high tide tropical delta. In Morgan, J. P.
(ed.), Deltaic Sedimentation – Modern and Ancient. Tulsa, Okla:
Society of Economic Palaeontologists and Mineralogists Special
Publication, Vol. 15, pp. 185–197.
Corner, G. D., Nordahl, E., Munch-Ellingsen, K., and Robertsen,
K. R., 1990. Morphology and sedimentology of an emergent
fjord-head Gilbert-type delta: Alta delta, Norway. In Corella,
A., and Prior, D. B. (eds.), Coarse-grained Deltas. Oxford: International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication,
Vol. 10, pp. 155–168.
Dalrymple, R. W., Zaitlin, B. A., and Boyd, R., 1992. Estuarine
facies models: conceptual basis and stratigraphic implications.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 62, 1130–1146.
Day, J. H., 1981. Estuarine Ecology – with Particular Reference to
Southern Africa. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.
Dominguez, J. M. L., 1996. The São Francisco strandplain:
a paradigm for wave-dominated deltas? Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 117, 217–231.
Elliott, T., 1986. Deltas. In Reading, H. G. (ed.), Sedimentary Environments and Facies. Hoboken: Blackwell Scientific Publishing, pp. 113–154.
Galloway, W. E., 1975. Process framework for describing the
morphologic and stratigraphic evolution of deltaic sediments.
In Broussard, M. L. (ed.), Deltas – Models for Exploration.
Houston: Houston Geological Society.
Gould, H. R., 1970. The Mississippi Delta complex. In Morgan, J. P.
(ed.), Deltaic Sedimentation – Modern and Ancient. Tulsa, Okla:
Society of Economic Palaeontologists & Mineralogists Special
Publication, Vol. 15, pp. 3–30.
Hart, B. S., 1996. Delta front estuaries. In Perillo, G. M. E. (ed.),
Geomorphology and Sedimentology of Estuaries, 2nd edn.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V, pp. 207–226.
Hayes, M. D., 1975. Morphology of sand accumulation in estuaries:
an introduction to the symposium. In Cronin, L. E. (ed.), Estuarine Research, Vol II: Geology and Engineering. New York:
Academic, pp. 3–22.
Hori, K., and Saito, Y., 2003. Morphology and Sediments of Large
River Deltas. Tokyo: Tokyo Geographical Society.
Kindinger, J. L., Balson, P. S., and Flocks, I. G., 1994. Stratigraphy of
the Mississippi-Alabama shelf and the mobile river incised-valley
system. In Dalrymple, R. W., Boyd, R., and Zaitlin, B. A. (eds.),
Incised-valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences.
Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of Economic Palaeontologists & Mineralogists Special Publication, Vol. 51, pp. 83–95.
Morgan, J. P., 1970. Depositional processes and products in the
deltaic environment. In Morgan, J. P. (ed.), Deltaic Sedimentation – Modern and Ancient. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of
Economic Palaeontologists & Mineralogists Special Publication,
Vol. 15, pp. 31–47.
Nemec, W., 1990. Deltas – remarks on terminology and classification. In Corella, A., and Prior, D. B. (eds.), Coarse-grained
Deltas. Oxford: International Association of Sedimentologists
Special Publication, Vol. 10, pp. 3–12.
Orton, G. J., and Reading, H. G., 1993. Variability of deltaic process
in terms of sediment supply, with particular emphasis on grain
size. Sedimentology, 40, 475–512.
186
DELTAS
richness and variety of stratigraphic types in intraestuarine deltas are due to (1) the provenance of the contributing rivers and types of sediment entering the estuary,
(2) seasonality and strength of river flow, (3) tides,
(4) wind and wind waves, and (5) climate. Climate plays
a part in the development of delta stratigraphy in that rainfall and evaporation determine the nature of the high-tidal
and supratidal lithologies and can determine if organic
matter-enriched sediment and/or peat forms the upper part
of the stratigraphy. Climate also determines the nature of
biota that contributes shelly material as gravel and sand.
Depending on whether deltaic sediments are dominated
by sand, or mud, or mixtures of sand and mud, or contain
gravel, and whether the delta is fluvial dominated, wave
dominated, or tide dominated, intra-estuarine deltas
exhibit a variety of stratigraphic types. Sand-dominated
deltas in fluvial-dominated conditions comprise a wedge
of sand, while under wave-dominated conditions comprise a wedge of sand of beach-to-beach ridges stacked
and prograded into the estuary, and those formed under
tide-dominated conditions show a sequence of tidealigned sand shoals, bars, and lenses aggraded to the level
of high tide and that have been covered by floodplain sand
deposits. The sand-and-mud-dominated deltas in fluvialdominated settings comprise a wedge of sand overlain
by muddy sand and in turn overlain by mud, while in
wave-dominated settings are a sheet of mud and muddy
sand deposited below the prevailing wave base with
a capping of sand of beach-to-beach ridges stacked and
prograded into the estuary. Those developed in tidedominated settings show a sequence of tide-aligned sand
shoals, bars, and lenses shoaled to the level of high tide
through lithologies of muddy sand and mud and covered
by floodplain mud deposits. Mud-dominated deltas in
fluvial-dominated conditions are a wedge of mud
prograded into the estuary, while those developed in
wave-dominated settings comprise a wedge of mud but
with local sand and gravel in sheets of muddy sand, lenses
of sand, and cheniers with mud accumulating below the
prevailing wave base. Mud-dominated deltas in tidedominated settings comprise a sequence of tide-aligned
mud shoals that aggrade to the level of high tide as mud
sheets and are covered by floodplain mud.
Bibliography
Allen, J. R. L., 1970. Sediments of the modern Niger Delta:
a summary and review. In Morgan, J. P. (ed.), Deltaic Sedimentation – Modern and Ancient. Tulsa, Okla: Society of Economic
Palaeontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication, Vol.
15, pp. 138–151.
Allen, G. P., and Posamentier, H. W., 1993. Sequence stratigraphy
and facies model of an incised valley fill; the Gironde Estuary,
France. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 63(3), 378–390.
Baker, E. K., Harris, P. T., Keene, J. B., and Short, S. A., 2009. Patterns of sedimentation in the macrotidal Fly River Delta, Papua
New Guinea. In Flemming, B. W., and Bartholomä, A. (eds.),
Tidal Signatures in Modern and Ancient Sediments. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
Bates, C. C., 1953. Rational theory of delta formation. Bulletin
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 37, 2119–2162.
Cameron, W. M., and Pritchard, D. W., 1963. Estuaries. In Hill, M. N.
(ed.), The Sea. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Vol. 2, pp. 306–324.
Coleman, J. M., 1976. Deltas: Processes of Deposition and Models
for Exploration. Champaign, Illinois: Continuing Education
Publication Company.
Coleman, J. M., and Wright, L. D., 1975. Modern river deltas: variability of processes and sand bodies. In Broussard, M. L. (ed.), Deltas –
Models for Exploration. Houston: Houston Geological Society.
Coleman, J. M., Gagliano, S. M., and Smith, W. G., 1970. Sedimentation in a Malaysian high tide tropical delta. In Morgan, J. P.
(ed.), Deltaic Sedimentation – Modern and Ancient. Tulsa, Okla:
Society of Economic Palaeontologists and Mineralogists Special
Publication, Vol. 15, pp. 185–197.
Corner, G. D., Nordahl, E., Munch-Ellingsen, K., and Robertsen,
K. R., 1990. Morphology and sedimentology of an emergent
fjord-head Gilbert-type delta: Alta delta, Norway. In Corella,
A., and Prior, D. B. (eds.), Coarse-grained Deltas. Oxford: International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication,
Vol. 10, pp. 155–168.
Dalrymple, R. W., Zaitlin, B. A., and Boyd, R., 1992. Estuarine
facies models: conceptual basis and stratigraphic implications.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 62, 1130–1146.
Day, J. H., 1981. Estuarine Ecology – with Particular Reference to
Southern Africa. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.
Dominguez, J. M. L., 1996. The São Francisco strandplain:
a paradigm for wave-dominated deltas? Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 117, 217–231.
Elliott, T., 1986. Deltas. In Reading, H. G. (ed.), Sedimentary Environments and Facies. Hoboken: Blackwell Scientific Publishing, pp. 113–154.
Galloway, W. E., 1975. Process framework for describing the
morphologic and stratigraphic evolution of deltaic sediments.
In Broussard, M. L. (ed.), Deltas – Models for Exploration.
Houston: Houston Geological Society.
Gould, H. R., 1970. The Mississippi Delta complex. In Morgan, J. P.
(ed.), Deltaic Sedimentation – Modern and Ancient. Tulsa, Okla:
Society of Economic Palaeontologists & Mineralogists Special
Publication, Vol. 15, pp. 3–30.
Hart, B. S., 1996. Delta front estuaries. In Perillo, G. M. E. (ed.),
Geomorphology and Sedimentology of Estuaries, 2nd edn.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V, pp. 207–226.
Hayes, M. D., 1975. Morphology of sand accumulation in estuaries:
an introduction to the symposium. In Cronin, L. E. (ed.), Estuarine Research, Vol II: Geology and Engineering. New York:
Academic, pp. 3–22.
Hori, K., and Saito, Y., 2003. Morphology and Sediments of Large
River Deltas. Tokyo: Tokyo Geographical Society.
Kindinger, J. L., Balson, P. S., and Flocks, I. G., 1994. Stratigraphy of
the Mississippi-Alabama shelf and the mobile river incised-valley
system. In Dalrymple, R. W., Boyd, R., and Zaitlin, B. A. (eds.),
Incised-valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences.
Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of Economic Palaeontologists & Mineralogists Special Publication, Vol. 51, pp. 83–95.
Morgan, J. P., 1970. Depositional processes and products in the
deltaic environment. In Morgan, J. P. (ed.), Deltaic Sedimentation – Modern and Ancient. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of
Economic Palaeontologists & Mineralogists Special Publication,
Vol. 15, pp. 31–47.
Nemec, W., 1990. Deltas – remarks on terminology and classification. In Corella, A., and Prior, D. B. (eds.), Coarse-grained
Deltas. Oxford: International Association of Sedimentologists
Special Publication, Vol. 10, pp. 3–12.
Orton, G. J., and Reading, H. G., 1993. Variability of deltaic process
in terms of sediment supply, with particular emphasis on grain
size. Sedimentology, 40, 475–512.
186
DELTAS