Cylindrospermopsis, Lyngbya, Nodularia, Oscillatoria,
and Trichodesmium, while the non-N 2 fixers are
Microcystis and Planktothrix which thrive in fresh and
estuarine environments as well as in marine systems
(Pearl et al., 2013). The major harmful toxins produced
by toxic or harmful cyanobacteria are large classes of natural polyketides compounds, nonribosomal peptides, or
a mixture of both (Moreira et al., 2013). Their biosynthesis
is performed by a family of multi-enzymatic complexes
called nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS) and
polyketide synthases (PKS) organized into repeated functional units known as modules (Carmichael, 1992; Cane
et al., 1999).
The “harmful” environmental aspect of cyanobacterial
blooms described by Pearl et al. (2013) begins with
a loss of water clarity, suppression of aquatic macrophytes, and negative effects on invertebrate and fish habitats. Consequently, the bacterial decomposition of dying
blooms may lead to oxygen depletion (hypoxia and
anoxia) and subsequent fish kills.
Smith et al. (2008) also indicates that cyanobacterial
odorous and bioactive metabolites have a negative impact
on aquaculture organisms. The toxins cause mortality of
aquaculture organisms or harm consumers consuming
the seafood products via accumulation of hepatoxins,
cytotoxins, neurotoxins, dermatoxins, and brine shrimp/
molluscan toxins. Some metabolites degrade the nutritional state of aquaculture species (inhibitors of proteases
and grazer deterrents). Aquaculture species or aquaculture
workers can be seriously impacted by dermatoxins, irritant
toxins, hepatoxins, and cytotoxins.
The cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa is the
most common bloom-forming and hepatotoxin-producing
species of cyanobacteria. It is known to produce the hepatotoxic heptapeptide microcystin in a variety of forms
(Kaebernick et al., 2000). Microcystin binds to the
multispecific bile acid transport system, subsequently
causing toxic effects on hepatocytes. The effect is the inhibition of eukaryotic protein phosphatases PP2A and PP1
(Ppp1, Ppp2, Ppp4, Ppp5, and Ppp6) that are involved in
tumor promotion and genotoxicity (Moreira et al., 2013).
The most recent data on microcystin is that it occurs
worldwide. Anthropogenic nutrient loading, rising temperatures, enhanced vertical stratification, and an increase
in residence time favor cyanobacterial dominance and
CyanoHAB proliferation in a wide range of aquatic ecosystems (Pearl and Otten, 2013).
Summary
Cyanobacteria can adapt to dramatic changes in hydrobiological conditions. They have numerous physiological
adaptations and mechanisms that enable them to take
advantage of environmental changes and extremes that
influence the biosynthesis of cyanotoxins for several
cyanobacterial species.
The occurrence of harmful cyanobacteria has been
linked to an increase in nutrient pollution in aquatic
ecosystems. Future climate change is predicted to cause
shifts in species composition of cyanobacterial blooms
favoring invasive species since modern global distributions of cyanobacterial species result from differences in
evolutionary adaptations and phenotypic traits.
Bibliography
Badger, M. R., Price, G. D., Long, B. M., and Woodger, F. J., 2006.
The environmental plasticity and ecological genomics of the
cyanobacterial CO2 concentrating mechanism. Journal of
Experimental Botany, 57, 249–265.
Beck, C., Knoop, H., Axmann, I., and Steuer, R., 2012. The diversity of cyanobacterial metabolism: genome analysis of multiple
phototrophic microorganisms. BMC Genomics, 13(1), 56.
Bonilla, S., Aubriot, L., Soares, M. C. S., Gonzalez-Piana, M.,
Fabre, A., Huszar, V. L. M., Lurling, M., Antoniades, D.,
Padisak, J., and Carla, K., 2012. What drives the distribution of
the bloom-forming cyanobacteria Planktothrix agardhii and
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii? FEMS Microbiology Ecology,
79, 594–607.
Bouvy, M., Arfi, R., Bernard, C., Carré, C., Got, P., Pagano, M., and
Troussellier, M., 2010. Estuarine microbial community characterization as indicators of human induced changes (Senegal
River, West Africa). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 87,
573–582.
Briand, J. F., Jacquet, S., Bernard, C., and Humbert, F., 2003. Health
hazards for terrestrial vertebrates from toxic cyanobacteria in
surface water ecosystems. Veterinary Research, 34, 361–377.
Burke, C., Thomas, T., Lewis, M., Steinberg, P., and Kjelleberg, S.,
2011. Composition, uniqueness and variability of the epiphytic
bacterial community of the green alga Ulva austrealis. ISME
Journal, 5, 590–600.
Cane, D. E., and Walsh, C. T., 1999. The parallel and convergent
universes of polyketide synthases and non ribosomal peptide
synthetases. Chemical Biology, 6, R319–R325.
Carmichael, W., 1992. Cyanobacteria secondary metabolites: the
cyanotoxins. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 72, 445–459.
Castenholz, R. W., and Garcia-Pichel, F., 2000. Cyano- bacterial
responses to UV-radiation. In: Whitton, B. A., and Potts M.
(eds.), The Ecology of cyanobacteria, their diversity in time
and space, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 591–
611.
Chan, F., Marino, R., Howarth, R. W., and Pace, M. L., 2006. Experimental tests of ecological constraints on planktonic nitrogen fixation in saline estuaries: II. Grazing controls on cyanobacterial
population dynamics. Marine Ecological Progress Series, 309,
41–53.
Couté, A., and Bernard, C., 2001. Les cyanobactéries toxiques. In
Frémy, J. M., and Lassus, P. (eds.), Toxines d’algues dans
l’alimentation, Ed. Ifremer, pp. 89–108.
Eiler, A., and Bertilsson, S., 2004. Composition of freshwater bacterial com- munities associated with cyanobacterial blooms in
four Swedish lakes. Environmental Microbiology, 6(1),
228–1243.
Esteves-Ferreira, A. A., Corrêa, D. M., Carneiro, A. P. S., Rosa,
R. M., Loterio, R., and Araújo, W. L., 2013. Comparative evaluation of different preservation methods for cyanobacterial
strains. Journal of Applied Phycology, 25, 919–929.
Fennel, K., Wilkin, J., and Levin, J., 2006. Nitrogen cycling in
the Middle Atlantic Bight: results from a three-dimensional
model and implications for the North Atlantic nitrogen budget.
Global Biogeochemical Cycle, 20, GB3007, doi:10.1029 /
2005GB002456.
Galloway, J. N., et al., 2004. Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and
future. Biogeochemistry, 70, 153–226.
CYANOBACTERIA
171
and Trichodesmium, while the non-N 2 fixers are
Microcystis and Planktothrix which thrive in fresh and
estuarine environments as well as in marine systems
(Pearl et al., 2013). The major harmful toxins produced
by toxic or harmful cyanobacteria are large classes of natural polyketides compounds, nonribosomal peptides, or
a mixture of both (Moreira et al., 2013). Their biosynthesis
is performed by a family of multi-enzymatic complexes
called nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS) and
polyketide synthases (PKS) organized into repeated functional units known as modules (Carmichael, 1992; Cane
et al., 1999).
The “harmful” environmental aspect of cyanobacterial
blooms described by Pearl et al. (2013) begins with
a loss of water clarity, suppression of aquatic macrophytes, and negative effects on invertebrate and fish habitats. Consequently, the bacterial decomposition of dying
blooms may lead to oxygen depletion (hypoxia and
anoxia) and subsequent fish kills.
Smith et al. (2008) also indicates that cyanobacterial
odorous and bioactive metabolites have a negative impact
on aquaculture organisms. The toxins cause mortality of
aquaculture organisms or harm consumers consuming
the seafood products via accumulation of hepatoxins,
cytotoxins, neurotoxins, dermatoxins, and brine shrimp/
molluscan toxins. Some metabolites degrade the nutritional state of aquaculture species (inhibitors of proteases
and grazer deterrents). Aquaculture species or aquaculture
workers can be seriously impacted by dermatoxins, irritant
toxins, hepatoxins, and cytotoxins.
The cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa is the
most common bloom-forming and hepatotoxin-producing
species of cyanobacteria. It is known to produce the hepatotoxic heptapeptide microcystin in a variety of forms
(Kaebernick et al., 2000). Microcystin binds to the
multispecific bile acid transport system, subsequently
causing toxic effects on hepatocytes. The effect is the inhibition of eukaryotic protein phosphatases PP2A and PP1
(Ppp1, Ppp2, Ppp4, Ppp5, and Ppp6) that are involved in
tumor promotion and genotoxicity (Moreira et al., 2013).
The most recent data on microcystin is that it occurs
worldwide. Anthropogenic nutrient loading, rising temperatures, enhanced vertical stratification, and an increase
in residence time favor cyanobacterial dominance and
CyanoHAB proliferation in a wide range of aquatic ecosystems (Pearl and Otten, 2013).
Summary
Cyanobacteria can adapt to dramatic changes in hydrobiological conditions. They have numerous physiological
adaptations and mechanisms that enable them to take
advantage of environmental changes and extremes that
influence the biosynthesis of cyanotoxins for several
cyanobacterial species.
The occurrence of harmful cyanobacteria has been
linked to an increase in nutrient pollution in aquatic
ecosystems. Future climate change is predicted to cause
shifts in species composition of cyanobacterial blooms
favoring invasive species since modern global distributions of cyanobacterial species result from differences in
evolutionary adaptations and phenotypic traits.
Bibliography
Badger, M. R., Price, G. D., Long, B. M., and Woodger, F. J., 2006.
The environmental plasticity and ecological genomics of the
cyanobacterial CO2 concentrating mechanism. Journal of
Experimental Botany, 57, 249–265.
Beck, C., Knoop, H., Axmann, I., and Steuer, R., 2012. The diversity of cyanobacterial metabolism: genome analysis of multiple
phototrophic microorganisms. BMC Genomics, 13(1), 56.
Bonilla, S., Aubriot, L., Soares, M. C. S., Gonzalez-Piana, M.,
Fabre, A., Huszar, V. L. M., Lurling, M., Antoniades, D.,
Padisak, J., and Carla, K., 2012. What drives the distribution of
the bloom-forming cyanobacteria Planktothrix agardhii and
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii? FEMS Microbiology Ecology,
79, 594–607.
Bouvy, M., Arfi, R., Bernard, C., Carré, C., Got, P., Pagano, M., and
Troussellier, M., 2010. Estuarine microbial community characterization as indicators of human induced changes (Senegal
River, West Africa). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 87,
573–582.
Briand, J. F., Jacquet, S., Bernard, C., and Humbert, F., 2003. Health
hazards for terrestrial vertebrates from toxic cyanobacteria in
surface water ecosystems. Veterinary Research, 34, 361–377.
Burke, C., Thomas, T., Lewis, M., Steinberg, P., and Kjelleberg, S.,
2011. Composition, uniqueness and variability of the epiphytic
bacterial community of the green alga Ulva austrealis. ISME
Journal, 5, 590–600.
Cane, D. E., and Walsh, C. T., 1999. The parallel and convergent
universes of polyketide synthases and non ribosomal peptide
synthetases. Chemical Biology, 6, R319–R325.
Carmichael, W., 1992. Cyanobacteria secondary metabolites: the
cyanotoxins. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 72, 445–459.
Castenholz, R. W., and Garcia-Pichel, F., 2000. Cyano- bacterial
responses to UV-radiation. In: Whitton, B. A., and Potts M.
(eds.), The Ecology of cyanobacteria, their diversity in time
and space, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 591–
611.
Chan, F., Marino, R., Howarth, R. W., and Pace, M. L., 2006. Experimental tests of ecological constraints on planktonic nitrogen fixation in saline estuaries: II. Grazing controls on cyanobacterial
population dynamics. Marine Ecological Progress Series, 309,
41–53.
Couté, A., and Bernard, C., 2001. Les cyanobactéries toxiques. In
Frémy, J. M., and Lassus, P. (eds.), Toxines d’algues dans
l’alimentation, Ed. Ifremer, pp. 89–108.
Eiler, A., and Bertilsson, S., 2004. Composition of freshwater bacterial com- munities associated with cyanobacterial blooms in
four Swedish lakes. Environmental Microbiology, 6(1),
228–1243.
Esteves-Ferreira, A. A., Corrêa, D. M., Carneiro, A. P. S., Rosa,
R. M., Loterio, R., and Araújo, W. L., 2013. Comparative evaluation of different preservation methods for cyanobacterial
strains. Journal of Applied Phycology, 25, 919–929.
Fennel, K., Wilkin, J., and Levin, J., 2006. Nitrogen cycling in
the Middle Atlantic Bight: results from a three-dimensional
model and implications for the North Atlantic nitrogen budget.
Global Biogeochemical Cycle, 20, GB3007, doi:10.1029 /
2005GB002456.
Galloway, J. N., et al., 2004. Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and
future. Biogeochemistry, 70, 153–226.
CYANOBACTERIA
171