surrounding human activities. Pest control activities
mostly for mosquitoes can impact coastal wetlands, but
habitat management for mosquito control has also been
used as a marsh restoration tool (Rey et al., 2012b). In the
United States, there were wetland losses of 146,200 ha in
coastal watersheds of the eastern seacoast between 1998
and 2004 in spite of overall gains in wetland coverage during the same period (Stedman and Dahl, 2008). Between
2004 and 2009, salt marsh and estuarine emergent areas
declined by 45,140 ha (Dahl, 2011). Worldwide mangrove
losses between 1980 and 2005 have been estimated at more
than 3.5 million ha (FAO, 2007) but the actual losses may
be significantly greater (Giri et al., 2011).
As habitats that bridge marine and terrestrial ecosystems, coastal wetlands are particularly vulnerable to sea
level changes and increased frequency of storms and other
extreme events produced by climate change (Hopkinson
et al., 2008). Depending upon circumstances, coastal wetlands may keep up with the relative rise, be lost, be
degraded, or migrate landward in response to sea level rise
(Gilman et al., 2007).
Summary
Coastal wetlands include seagrass communities, tidal
flats, coastal salt marshes, and mangrove forests. They
are important and complex ecosystems whose structure
and function are determined by a large number of biotic
and abiotic processes including non-resource factors such
as salinity and climate, resources used by organisms for
growth, and hydroperiod, with the latter being the dominant factor in salt marshes. These areas have great ecological importance due to the value and diversity of
ecosystem functions that they provide. However, because
of the desirability of the coastal zone for human habitation
and associated infrastructure, coastal habitat degradation
and loss is a serious problem worldwide. Also, because
of their location in the interphase between the sea and
the land, these habitats are particularly vulnerable to sea
level changes and increased frequency of storms and other
extreme events produced by climate change.
Bibliography
Berger, U., Rivera-Monroy, V. H., Doyle, T. W., Dahdouh-Guebas,
F., Duke, N. C., Fontalvo-Herazo, M. L., Hildenbrandt, H.,
Koedam, N., Mehlig, U., Piou, C., and Twilley, R. R., 2008.
Advances and limitations of individual-based models to analyze
and predict dynamics of mangrove forests: a review. Aquatic
Botany, 89, 260–274.
D’Alpaos, A., Da Lio, C., and Marani, M., 2012. Biogeomorphology
of tidal landforms: physical and biological processes shaping the
tidal landscape. Ecohydrology, 5, 550–562.
Dahl, T. E., 2011. Status and Trends of Wetlands In the Conterminous United States 2004–2009. Washington, D.C.: National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine
Fisheries Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
FAO, 2007. The World's Mangroves 1980–2005. Rome: FAO Forestry Papers 153. FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations.
Gilman, E., Ellison, J., and Coleman, R., 2007. Assessment of mangrove response to projected relative sea-level rise and recent historical reconstruction of shoreline position. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 124, 105–130.
Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L. L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland,
T., Masek, J., and Duke, N., 2011. Status and distribution of
mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite
data. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 20, 154–159.
Gopal, B., and Junk, W. J., 2013. Biodiversity in wetlands: an introduction. In Gopal, B., Junk, W. J., and Davis, J. A. (eds.), Biodiversity in Wetlands: Assessment, Function, and Conservation.
Leiden: Backhuys Publishers, pp. 1–10.
Gribsholt, B., and Kristensen, E., 2003. Benthic metabolism and sulfur cycling along an inundation gradient in a tidal Spartina anglica
salt marsh. Limnology and Oceanography, 48, 2151–2162.
Gribsholt, B., Kostka, J. E., and Kristensen, E., 2003. Impact of fiddler
crabs and plant roots on sediment biogeochemistry in a Georgia
saltmarsh. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 259, 237–251.
Hopkinson, C. S., Lugo, A. E., Alber, M., Covich, A. P., and Van
Bloem, S. J., 2008. Forecasting effects of sea-level rise and
windstorms on coastal and inland ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 6, 255–263.
Hughes, R. H., Hughes, J. S., and Bernacsek, G. M., 1992. A Directory of African Wetlands. Gland: International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Kurz, H., and Wagner, K., 1957. Tidal marshes of the Gulf and
Atlantic coasts of Northern Florida and Charleston, South Carolina. Tallahassee: Florida State University Studies.
Lu, J. B., and Zhang, Y., 2013. Spatial distribution of an invasive
plant Spartina alterniflora and its potential as biofuels in China.
Ecological Engineering, 52, 175–181.
Marani, M., D’Alpaos, A., Lanzoni, S., Carniello, L., and Rinaldo,
A., 2007. Biologically-controlled multiple equilibria of tidal
landforms and the fate of the venice lagoon. Geophysical
Research Letters, 34, L11402, doi:10.1029/2007GL030178.
Marani, M., Da Lio, C., and D’Alpaos, A., 2013. Vegetation engineers marsh morphology through multiple competing stable
states. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, 110, 3259–3263.
Martini, I. P., Jefferies, R. L., Morrison, R. I. G., and Abraham, K. F.,
2013. Polar coastal wetlands: development, structure, and land
use. In Perillo, G. M. E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D. R., and
Brinson, M. M. (eds.), Coastal Wetlands. An Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 119–156.
McCraith, B. J., Gardner, L. R., Wethey, D. S., and Moore, W. S.,
2003. The effect of fiddler crab burrowing on sediment
mixing and radionuclide profiles along a topographic gradient
in a southeastern salt marsh. Journal of Marine Research, 61,
359–390.
Mitsch, W. J., and Gosselink, J. G., 2007. Wetlands, 4th edn. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
Montague, C. L., and Wiegert, R. G., 1990. Salt Marshes. In Myers,
R. L., and Ewel, J. J. (eds.), Ecosystems of Florida. Orlando:
University of Central Florida Press, pp. 481–516.
NOAA. 2013. National Coastal Population Report. National Ocean
Service, Washington, D.C., 22 pp.
Nixon, S. W., and Oviatt, C. A., 1973. Ecology of a New England
salt-marsh. Ecological Monographs, 43, 463–498.
Perillo, G. M. E., 2009. Tidal courses: classification, origin and
functionality. In Perillo, G. M. E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D. R.,
and Brinson, M. M. (eds.), Coastal Wetlands. An Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 185–209.
Pratolongo, P. D., Kirby, J. R., Plater, A., and Brinson, M. M., 2013.
Temperate coastal wetlands: morphology, sediment processes,
and plant communities. In Perillo, G. M. E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon,
D. R., and Brinson, M. M. (eds.), Coastal Wetlands. An Integrated
Ecosystem Approach. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 89–118.
COASTAL WETLANDS
163
mostly for mosquitoes can impact coastal wetlands, but
habitat management for mosquito control has also been
used as a marsh restoration tool (Rey et al., 2012b). In the
United States, there were wetland losses of 146,200 ha in
coastal watersheds of the eastern seacoast between 1998
and 2004 in spite of overall gains in wetland coverage during the same period (Stedman and Dahl, 2008). Between
2004 and 2009, salt marsh and estuarine emergent areas
declined by 45,140 ha (Dahl, 2011). Worldwide mangrove
losses between 1980 and 2005 have been estimated at more
than 3.5 million ha (FAO, 2007) but the actual losses may
be significantly greater (Giri et al., 2011).
As habitats that bridge marine and terrestrial ecosystems, coastal wetlands are particularly vulnerable to sea
level changes and increased frequency of storms and other
extreme events produced by climate change (Hopkinson
et al., 2008). Depending upon circumstances, coastal wetlands may keep up with the relative rise, be lost, be
degraded, or migrate landward in response to sea level rise
(Gilman et al., 2007).
Summary
Coastal wetlands include seagrass communities, tidal
flats, coastal salt marshes, and mangrove forests. They
are important and complex ecosystems whose structure
and function are determined by a large number of biotic
and abiotic processes including non-resource factors such
as salinity and climate, resources used by organisms for
growth, and hydroperiod, with the latter being the dominant factor in salt marshes. These areas have great ecological importance due to the value and diversity of
ecosystem functions that they provide. However, because
of the desirability of the coastal zone for human habitation
and associated infrastructure, coastal habitat degradation
and loss is a serious problem worldwide. Also, because
of their location in the interphase between the sea and
the land, these habitats are particularly vulnerable to sea
level changes and increased frequency of storms and other
extreme events produced by climate change.
Bibliography
Berger, U., Rivera-Monroy, V. H., Doyle, T. W., Dahdouh-Guebas,
F., Duke, N. C., Fontalvo-Herazo, M. L., Hildenbrandt, H.,
Koedam, N., Mehlig, U., Piou, C., and Twilley, R. R., 2008.
Advances and limitations of individual-based models to analyze
and predict dynamics of mangrove forests: a review. Aquatic
Botany, 89, 260–274.
D’Alpaos, A., Da Lio, C., and Marani, M., 2012. Biogeomorphology
of tidal landforms: physical and biological processes shaping the
tidal landscape. Ecohydrology, 5, 550–562.
Dahl, T. E., 2011. Status and Trends of Wetlands In the Conterminous United States 2004–2009. Washington, D.C.: National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine
Fisheries Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
FAO, 2007. The World's Mangroves 1980–2005. Rome: FAO Forestry Papers 153. FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations.
Gilman, E., Ellison, J., and Coleman, R., 2007. Assessment of mangrove response to projected relative sea-level rise and recent historical reconstruction of shoreline position. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 124, 105–130.
Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L. L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland,
T., Masek, J., and Duke, N., 2011. Status and distribution of
mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite
data. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 20, 154–159.
Gopal, B., and Junk, W. J., 2013. Biodiversity in wetlands: an introduction. In Gopal, B., Junk, W. J., and Davis, J. A. (eds.), Biodiversity in Wetlands: Assessment, Function, and Conservation.
Leiden: Backhuys Publishers, pp. 1–10.
Gribsholt, B., and Kristensen, E., 2003. Benthic metabolism and sulfur cycling along an inundation gradient in a tidal Spartina anglica
salt marsh. Limnology and Oceanography, 48, 2151–2162.
Gribsholt, B., Kostka, J. E., and Kristensen, E., 2003. Impact of fiddler
crabs and plant roots on sediment biogeochemistry in a Georgia
saltmarsh. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 259, 237–251.
Hopkinson, C. S., Lugo, A. E., Alber, M., Covich, A. P., and Van
Bloem, S. J., 2008. Forecasting effects of sea-level rise and
windstorms on coastal and inland ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 6, 255–263.
Hughes, R. H., Hughes, J. S., and Bernacsek, G. M., 1992. A Directory of African Wetlands. Gland: International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Kurz, H., and Wagner, K., 1957. Tidal marshes of the Gulf and
Atlantic coasts of Northern Florida and Charleston, South Carolina. Tallahassee: Florida State University Studies.
Lu, J. B., and Zhang, Y., 2013. Spatial distribution of an invasive
plant Spartina alterniflora and its potential as biofuels in China.
Ecological Engineering, 52, 175–181.
Marani, M., D’Alpaos, A., Lanzoni, S., Carniello, L., and Rinaldo,
A., 2007. Biologically-controlled multiple equilibria of tidal
landforms and the fate of the venice lagoon. Geophysical
Research Letters, 34, L11402, doi:10.1029/2007GL030178.
Marani, M., Da Lio, C., and D’Alpaos, A., 2013. Vegetation engineers marsh morphology through multiple competing stable
states. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, 110, 3259–3263.
Martini, I. P., Jefferies, R. L., Morrison, R. I. G., and Abraham, K. F.,
2013. Polar coastal wetlands: development, structure, and land
use. In Perillo, G. M. E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D. R., and
Brinson, M. M. (eds.), Coastal Wetlands. An Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 119–156.
McCraith, B. J., Gardner, L. R., Wethey, D. S., and Moore, W. S.,
2003. The effect of fiddler crab burrowing on sediment
mixing and radionuclide profiles along a topographic gradient
in a southeastern salt marsh. Journal of Marine Research, 61,
359–390.
Mitsch, W. J., and Gosselink, J. G., 2007. Wetlands, 4th edn. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
Montague, C. L., and Wiegert, R. G., 1990. Salt Marshes. In Myers,
R. L., and Ewel, J. J. (eds.), Ecosystems of Florida. Orlando:
University of Central Florida Press, pp. 481–516.
NOAA. 2013. National Coastal Population Report. National Ocean
Service, Washington, D.C., 22 pp.
Nixon, S. W., and Oviatt, C. A., 1973. Ecology of a New England
salt-marsh. Ecological Monographs, 43, 463–498.
Perillo, G. M. E., 2009. Tidal courses: classification, origin and
functionality. In Perillo, G. M. E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D. R.,
and Brinson, M. M. (eds.), Coastal Wetlands. An Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 185–209.
Pratolongo, P. D., Kirby, J. R., Plater, A., and Brinson, M. M., 2013.
Temperate coastal wetlands: morphology, sediment processes,
and plant communities. In Perillo, G. M. E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon,
D. R., and Brinson, M. M. (eds.), Coastal Wetlands. An Integrated
Ecosystem Approach. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 89–118.
COASTAL WETLANDS
163