(Haskin and Ford, 1979). These stocks have been
further bred to provide lines that are better suited for
certain regional conditions. In addition, oysters
(Crassostrea gigas and C. virginica) have been subject
to ploidy manipulation to provide for animals with
reduced or no gonadal development allowing marketing
a uniform product on a year-round basis. By developing
tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes) stocks (Allen and
Guo, 1998), hatcheries are now able to provide triploid
(functionally sterile) oysters for the culture market. Some
breeding work has been conducted with hard clams
(Mercenaria mercenaria), but most of this was to develop
faster, more uniform growth. There is evidence that some
strains of hard clams are better suited for certain environments and have higher resistance to the disease QPX
(Quahog Parasite Unknown) (Ragone-Calvo et al., 2007;
Kraeuter et al., 2011), but the stocks have not been bred
for these characteristics.
Health effects
An important aspect of bivalve culture is the requirement
for high water quality. As bivalves filter the water, they
concentrate microorganisms. This characteristic, and
because many bivalves are eaten without cooking, means
they must be cultivated in waters free of organisms that
cause human sicknesses. This constrains site selection
and means the presence of bivalve culture provides an
incentive for water quality managers to maintain or
improve bacterial water quality.
Summary
Over 75 % of the bivalves harvested from estuaries are
produced by aquaculture which is rapidly increasing
(Creswell and McNevin, 2008; Rheault, 2012). Bivalve
aquaculture does not rely on adding feed to the environment, and as such is considered to be a form of nutrient
extraction. If populations are dense enough, they can
become a natural control of eutrophication (Cloern,
1982; Officer et al., 1982). In addition, since bivalves are
filter feeders, they remove fine particles from the water
and can increase water clarity. Through biodeposition,
they enhance nutrient recycling including denitrification
(Newell et al., 2005). Lastly, sites culturing bivalves for
human consumption require the highest water quality
standards and can provide important incentives for
increasing or maintaining estuarine water quality.
Bibliography
Allen, S. K. Jr., and Guo, X., 1998. Tetraploid Shellfish. U.S. Patent
5824841A. US. Patent Office.
Burkholder, J. M., and Shumway, S. E., 2011. Bivalve shellfish
aquaculture and eutrophication. In Shumway, S. E. (ed.),
Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Chichester:
Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 155–215.
Cloern, J. E., 1982. Does the benthos control phytoplankton
biomass in South San Francisco Bay? Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 9, 191–202.
Creswell, R. L., and McNevin, A. A., 2008. Better management
practices for bivalve molluscan aquaculture. In Tucker, C. S.,
and Hargreaves, J. A. (eds.), Environmental Best Management
Practices for Aquaculture. Ames, IW: Blackwell, pp. 427–486.
Dumbauld, B. R., Ruesink, J. L., and Rumrill, S. S., 2009. The
ecological role of bivalve shellfish aquaculture in the estuarine
environment: a review with application to oyster and clam culture in West Coast (USA) estuaries. Aquaculture, 290, 196–223.
Haskin, H. H., and Ford, S. E., 1979. Development of resistance to
Minchinia nelsoni (MSX) mortality in laboratory-reared and
native oysters in Delaware Bay. Marine Fisheries Review, 41,
54–63.
Heral, M., 1991. Approaches de la capacite trophique des eco-systmes
conchyliocoles: synthase bibliographique. In Lockwood, S. J.
(ed.), The Ecology and Management Aspects of Extensive Mariculture. ICES Marine Science Symposium, pp. 48–62.
Ito, S., and Imai, T., 1955. The ecology of oyster bed. I. On the
decline of productivity due to repeated culture. Tokoka Journal
of Agricultural Research, 5, 251–268.
Kraeuter, J. N., Ford, S. E., Bushek, D., Scarpa, E., Walton, W. C.,
Murphy, D. C., Flimlin, G., and Mathis, G., 2011. Evaluation
of three northern quahog (¼ hard clam) Mercenaria mercenaria
(Linnaeus) strains grown in Massachusetts and New Jersey for
QPX resistance. Journal of Shellfish Research, 30, 805–812.
Kraeuter, J. N., Luckenbach, M. W., and Bushek, D., 2013.
Assessing the effects of clam, Mercenaria mercenaria aquaculture on necktonic and benthic assemblages in two shallow water
estuaries. In Abstract (National Shellfisheries Association
Website), Aquaculture 2013 Meeting, Nashville, TN.
Newell, R. I. E., Fisher, T. R., Holyoke, R. R., and Cornwell, J. C.,
2005. Influence of eastern oysters on nitrogen and
phosphorus regeneration in Chesapeake Bay, USA. In Dame, R.,
and Olenin, S. (eds.), The Comparative Roles of Suspension
Feeders in Ecosystems. Dordrecht: Springer. NATO Science
Series, Vol. IV. Earth and Science, 47, 93–120.
Norkko, J., and Shumway, S. E., 2011. Bivalves as bioturbators and
bioirrigators. In Shumway, S. E. (ed.), Shellfish Aquaculture and
the Environment. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 297–317.
Officer, C. B., Smayda, T. J., and Mann, R., 1982. Benthic filter
feeding a natural eutrophication control. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 9, 203–210.
Ragone-Calvo, L. M., Ford, S. E., Kraeuter, J. N., Leavitt, D. F.,
Smolowitz, R., and Burreson, E. M., 2007. Influence of host
genetic origin and geographic location on QPX disease in hard
clams, Mercenaria mercenaria. Journal of Shellfish Research,
26, 109–119.
Rheault, R., 2012. Shellfish aquaculture. In Tidwell, J. (ed.),
Aquaculture Production Systems. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell
(Chapter 5).
Van Blaricom, G. R., McDonald, P. S., Price, J. L., McPeek, K. C.,
Galloway, A. W. E., Cordell, J. R., Dethier, M. N., and
Armstrong, D. A., 2013. Ecological consequences of geoduck
clam Panope generosa Gould, 1850 aquaculture for benthic
communities of intertidal sand flats in southern Puget Sound,
Washington, USA: a summary of findings, 2008–2012.
In Abstract (National Shellfisheries Association Website),
Aquaculture 2013 Meeting, Nashville, TN.
Cross-references
Shellfish Production
88
BIVALVE AQUACULTURE
further bred to provide lines that are better suited for
certain regional conditions. In addition, oysters
(Crassostrea gigas and C. virginica) have been subject
to ploidy manipulation to provide for animals with
reduced or no gonadal development allowing marketing
a uniform product on a year-round basis. By developing
tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes) stocks (Allen and
Guo, 1998), hatcheries are now able to provide triploid
(functionally sterile) oysters for the culture market. Some
breeding work has been conducted with hard clams
(Mercenaria mercenaria), but most of this was to develop
faster, more uniform growth. There is evidence that some
strains of hard clams are better suited for certain environments and have higher resistance to the disease QPX
(Quahog Parasite Unknown) (Ragone-Calvo et al., 2007;
Kraeuter et al., 2011), but the stocks have not been bred
for these characteristics.
Health effects
An important aspect of bivalve culture is the requirement
for high water quality. As bivalves filter the water, they
concentrate microorganisms. This characteristic, and
because many bivalves are eaten without cooking, means
they must be cultivated in waters free of organisms that
cause human sicknesses. This constrains site selection
and means the presence of bivalve culture provides an
incentive for water quality managers to maintain or
improve bacterial water quality.
Summary
Over 75 % of the bivalves harvested from estuaries are
produced by aquaculture which is rapidly increasing
(Creswell and McNevin, 2008; Rheault, 2012). Bivalve
aquaculture does not rely on adding feed to the environment, and as such is considered to be a form of nutrient
extraction. If populations are dense enough, they can
become a natural control of eutrophication (Cloern,
1982; Officer et al., 1982). In addition, since bivalves are
filter feeders, they remove fine particles from the water
and can increase water clarity. Through biodeposition,
they enhance nutrient recycling including denitrification
(Newell et al., 2005). Lastly, sites culturing bivalves for
human consumption require the highest water quality
standards and can provide important incentives for
increasing or maintaining estuarine water quality.
Bibliography
Allen, S. K. Jr., and Guo, X., 1998. Tetraploid Shellfish. U.S. Patent
5824841A. US. Patent Office.
Burkholder, J. M., and Shumway, S. E., 2011. Bivalve shellfish
aquaculture and eutrophication. In Shumway, S. E. (ed.),
Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Chichester:
Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 155–215.
Cloern, J. E., 1982. Does the benthos control phytoplankton
biomass in South San Francisco Bay? Marine Ecology Progress
Series, 9, 191–202.
Creswell, R. L., and McNevin, A. A., 2008. Better management
practices for bivalve molluscan aquaculture. In Tucker, C. S.,
and Hargreaves, J. A. (eds.), Environmental Best Management
Practices for Aquaculture. Ames, IW: Blackwell, pp. 427–486.
Dumbauld, B. R., Ruesink, J. L., and Rumrill, S. S., 2009. The
ecological role of bivalve shellfish aquaculture in the estuarine
environment: a review with application to oyster and clam culture in West Coast (USA) estuaries. Aquaculture, 290, 196–223.
Haskin, H. H., and Ford, S. E., 1979. Development of resistance to
Minchinia nelsoni (MSX) mortality in laboratory-reared and
native oysters in Delaware Bay. Marine Fisheries Review, 41,
54–63.
Heral, M., 1991. Approaches de la capacite trophique des eco-systmes
conchyliocoles: synthase bibliographique. In Lockwood, S. J.
(ed.), The Ecology and Management Aspects of Extensive Mariculture. ICES Marine Science Symposium, pp. 48–62.
Ito, S., and Imai, T., 1955. The ecology of oyster bed. I. On the
decline of productivity due to repeated culture. Tokoka Journal
of Agricultural Research, 5, 251–268.
Kraeuter, J. N., Ford, S. E., Bushek, D., Scarpa, E., Walton, W. C.,
Murphy, D. C., Flimlin, G., and Mathis, G., 2011. Evaluation
of three northern quahog (¼ hard clam) Mercenaria mercenaria
(Linnaeus) strains grown in Massachusetts and New Jersey for
QPX resistance. Journal of Shellfish Research, 30, 805–812.
Kraeuter, J. N., Luckenbach, M. W., and Bushek, D., 2013.
Assessing the effects of clam, Mercenaria mercenaria aquaculture on necktonic and benthic assemblages in two shallow water
estuaries. In Abstract (National Shellfisheries Association
Website), Aquaculture 2013 Meeting, Nashville, TN.
Newell, R. I. E., Fisher, T. R., Holyoke, R. R., and Cornwell, J. C.,
2005. Influence of eastern oysters on nitrogen and
phosphorus regeneration in Chesapeake Bay, USA. In Dame, R.,
and Olenin, S. (eds.), The Comparative Roles of Suspension
Feeders in Ecosystems. Dordrecht: Springer. NATO Science
Series, Vol. IV. Earth and Science, 47, 93–120.
Norkko, J., and Shumway, S. E., 2011. Bivalves as bioturbators and
bioirrigators. In Shumway, S. E. (ed.), Shellfish Aquaculture and
the Environment. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 297–317.
Officer, C. B., Smayda, T. J., and Mann, R., 1982. Benthic filter
feeding a natural eutrophication control. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 9, 203–210.
Ragone-Calvo, L. M., Ford, S. E., Kraeuter, J. N., Leavitt, D. F.,
Smolowitz, R., and Burreson, E. M., 2007. Influence of host
genetic origin and geographic location on QPX disease in hard
clams, Mercenaria mercenaria. Journal of Shellfish Research,
26, 109–119.
Rheault, R., 2012. Shellfish aquaculture. In Tidwell, J. (ed.),
Aquaculture Production Systems. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell
(Chapter 5).
Van Blaricom, G. R., McDonald, P. S., Price, J. L., McPeek, K. C.,
Galloway, A. W. E., Cordell, J. R., Dethier, M. N., and
Armstrong, D. A., 2013. Ecological consequences of geoduck
clam Panope generosa Gould, 1850 aquaculture for benthic
communities of intertidal sand flats in southern Puget Sound,
Washington, USA: a summary of findings, 2008–2012.
In Abstract (National Shellfisheries Association Website),
Aquaculture 2013 Meeting, Nashville, TN.
Cross-references
Shellfish Production
88
BIVALVE AQUACULTURE