Bibliography
Carmichael, R. H., Walton, W., and Clark, H., 2012. Bivalveenhanced nitrogen removal from coastal estuaries. Canadian
Journal of Fish Aquatic Sciences, 69, 1131–1149.
Martínez-Córdova, L. R., López-Elías, J. L., Martínez-Porchas, M.,
Bernal-Jaspeado, T., and Miranda-Baeza, A., 2011. Studies on
the bioremediation capacity of the adult black clam, Chione
fluctifraga, of shrimp culture effluents. Revista de Biologı ´a
Marina y Oceanografı ´a, 46, 105–113.
Nagvenkar, G. S., and Ramaiah, N., 2010. Arsenite tolerance and
biotransformation potential in estuarine bacteria. Ecotoxicology,
19, 604–613.
Zhu, X., Venosa, A. D., and Suidan, M. T., 2004. Literature review
on the use of commercial bio-remediation agents for cleanup of
oil contaminated estuarine environments. EPA Technical Report
EPA/600/R-04/075, Washington, DC.
Cross-references
Anthropogenic Impacts
Eutrophication
Macroalgae
Oil Pollution
Trace Metals in Estuaries
BIVALVE AQUACULTURE
John N. Kraeuter
Marine Science Education and Research Center,
Department of Marine Science, University of New
England, Biddeford, ME, USA
Definitions
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms by intervention in rearing to enhance production. It implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock.
Bivalve includes any member of the molluscan
class Bivalvia, or Pelecypoda, characterized by having
a two-piece (valved) shell.
Carrying capacity is the maximum population size or
biomass that can be supported in a given area.
Epifauna are animals living on the surface of the
sediments or hard substrate.
Infauna are animals living in the sediments such that the
organism is entirely or nearly entirely covered.
Bivalve aquaculture classification
Bivalve aquaculture can be classified in two ways. The
first focuses on the intended use of the final product, harvest, or restoration. Most bivalves are cultured for food,
but some such as pearl oysters are cultured for jewelry,
while others are produced to enhance or restore natural
populations. Culture techniques for all uses are generally
similar, but restoration stocks are maintained beyond
normal harvest size to augment depleted populations.
The major difference between harvest and restoration
organisms involves the parental stock. Restoration stocks
are generally selected to be genetically similar to the
native populations to be restored, but, if disease is responsible for low population levels, it may be desirable to utilize stocks selected for disease resistance. Harvested
individuals may be bred for genetic sterility, disease resistance, shape, meat yield, and fast growth.
An alternative classification scheme divides bivalves
by habitat type: infaunal and epifaunal. Infauna includes
those living near the surface (Mercenaria, Cerastoderma,
Meretrix, Ruditapes), deeper burrowers (Mya, Panope),
and the active burrowers (Ensis, Solen). Epifauna attach
by cementing themselves to solid objects (oysters: Ostrea,
Crassostrea, Saccostrea, etc.) or deploying a byssal thread
(mussels: Mytilu and Perna). Others do not attach as
adults, but move actively over the bottom (scallops:
Argopecten, Patinopecten). The discussion below utilizes
habitat classification because it facilitates discussion of
environmental needs and the methods and equipment
utilized during culture.
Hatcheries and nurseries
The two methods for obtaining seed for culturing are collection from wild stocks or the use of a hatchery. Culture
historically started with species whose seed could easily
be collected from the wild such as oysters, mussels, manila
clams, soft-shell clams, and some scallop species. Wildharvested seed is unavailable for some species such as the
hard clam (Mercenaria) and the geoduck (Panope) because
seed density is too low to support harvest. For species
whose seed can be collected, the harvested seed are cultured in a manner similar to hatchery seed. When wild seed
are unavailable, hatchery technology offers a means of
obtaining seed. Hatcheries can also provide a more consistent seed supply and the opportunity for breeding and
genetic improvement. Larger seed cost more but usually
have higher survival. This cost dictates what sized juveniles
must be produced to allow a reasonable trade-off between
seed cost and survival of the planted crop.
Bivalve hatcheries are typically located on estuaries
because waterfront access and reduced wave energy lower
the cost of installing piping and pumps needed to provide
water (there are exceptions, such as in Hawaii, where deep
ocean water is available near shore, is high in nutrients and
low in suspended sediments, and has constant temperature
and salinity). Water pumped from estuaries has variable
physical and chemical characteristics and often requires
filtration and/or sterilization before use.
The hatchery process begins with ripening brood stock
by warming the water and providing sufficient food, usually cultured microalgae (phytoplankton) although naturally available food can be utilized if water quality can
be controlled. Most hatcheries begin the production season as the waters warm but may start earlier than nature
so small seed are available to gain a growth advantage as
the natural system warms. The early production of seed
implies that the hatchery must maintain the newly set
BIVALVE AQUACULTURE
85
Carmichael, R. H., Walton, W., and Clark, H., 2012. Bivalveenhanced nitrogen removal from coastal estuaries. Canadian
Journal of Fish Aquatic Sciences, 69, 1131–1149.
Martínez-Córdova, L. R., López-Elías, J. L., Martínez-Porchas, M.,
Bernal-Jaspeado, T., and Miranda-Baeza, A., 2011. Studies on
the bioremediation capacity of the adult black clam, Chione
fluctifraga, of shrimp culture effluents. Revista de Biologı ´a
Marina y Oceanografı ´a, 46, 105–113.
Nagvenkar, G. S., and Ramaiah, N., 2010. Arsenite tolerance and
biotransformation potential in estuarine bacteria. Ecotoxicology,
19, 604–613.
Zhu, X., Venosa, A. D., and Suidan, M. T., 2004. Literature review
on the use of commercial bio-remediation agents for cleanup of
oil contaminated estuarine environments. EPA Technical Report
EPA/600/R-04/075, Washington, DC.
Cross-references
Anthropogenic Impacts
Eutrophication
Macroalgae
Oil Pollution
Trace Metals in Estuaries
BIVALVE AQUACULTURE
John N. Kraeuter
Marine Science Education and Research Center,
Department of Marine Science, University of New
England, Biddeford, ME, USA
Definitions
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms by intervention in rearing to enhance production. It implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock.
Bivalve includes any member of the molluscan
class Bivalvia, or Pelecypoda, characterized by having
a two-piece (valved) shell.
Carrying capacity is the maximum population size or
biomass that can be supported in a given area.
Epifauna are animals living on the surface of the
sediments or hard substrate.
Infauna are animals living in the sediments such that the
organism is entirely or nearly entirely covered.
Bivalve aquaculture classification
Bivalve aquaculture can be classified in two ways. The
first focuses on the intended use of the final product, harvest, or restoration. Most bivalves are cultured for food,
but some such as pearl oysters are cultured for jewelry,
while others are produced to enhance or restore natural
populations. Culture techniques for all uses are generally
similar, but restoration stocks are maintained beyond
normal harvest size to augment depleted populations.
The major difference between harvest and restoration
organisms involves the parental stock. Restoration stocks
are generally selected to be genetically similar to the
native populations to be restored, but, if disease is responsible for low population levels, it may be desirable to utilize stocks selected for disease resistance. Harvested
individuals may be bred for genetic sterility, disease resistance, shape, meat yield, and fast growth.
An alternative classification scheme divides bivalves
by habitat type: infaunal and epifaunal. Infauna includes
those living near the surface (Mercenaria, Cerastoderma,
Meretrix, Ruditapes), deeper burrowers (Mya, Panope),
and the active burrowers (Ensis, Solen). Epifauna attach
by cementing themselves to solid objects (oysters: Ostrea,
Crassostrea, Saccostrea, etc.) or deploying a byssal thread
(mussels: Mytilu and Perna). Others do not attach as
adults, but move actively over the bottom (scallops:
Argopecten, Patinopecten). The discussion below utilizes
habitat classification because it facilitates discussion of
environmental needs and the methods and equipment
utilized during culture.
Hatcheries and nurseries
The two methods for obtaining seed for culturing are collection from wild stocks or the use of a hatchery. Culture
historically started with species whose seed could easily
be collected from the wild such as oysters, mussels, manila
clams, soft-shell clams, and some scallop species. Wildharvested seed is unavailable for some species such as the
hard clam (Mercenaria) and the geoduck (Panope) because
seed density is too low to support harvest. For species
whose seed can be collected, the harvested seed are cultured in a manner similar to hatchery seed. When wild seed
are unavailable, hatchery technology offers a means of
obtaining seed. Hatcheries can also provide a more consistent seed supply and the opportunity for breeding and
genetic improvement. Larger seed cost more but usually
have higher survival. This cost dictates what sized juveniles
must be produced to allow a reasonable trade-off between
seed cost and survival of the planted crop.
Bivalve hatcheries are typically located on estuaries
because waterfront access and reduced wave energy lower
the cost of installing piping and pumps needed to provide
water (there are exceptions, such as in Hawaii, where deep
ocean water is available near shore, is high in nutrients and
low in suspended sediments, and has constant temperature
and salinity). Water pumped from estuaries has variable
physical and chemical characteristics and often requires
filtration and/or sterilization before use.
The hatchery process begins with ripening brood stock
by warming the water and providing sufficient food, usually cultured microalgae (phytoplankton) although naturally available food can be utilized if water quality can
be controlled. Most hatcheries begin the production season as the waters warm but may start earlier than nature
so small seed are available to gain a growth advantage as
the natural system warms. The early production of seed
implies that the hatchery must maintain the newly set
BIVALVE AQUACULTURE
85