waters (Murray and Kautsky 1977). In the sediment, plutonium can accumulate
extensively (ls,OOO-fold) so that concentrations of up to 1-10 pCi/kg of dry sediment develop in German coastal areas.
Concentration levels in organisms vary enormously: in large algae: 0.3-0.6 pCi/kg
(wet weight), in invertebrates: 0.2-3.5 pCi/kg (wet weight), in fish however, below
0.01 pCi/kg (wet weight) in the muscle tissue and slightly higher in the liver.
The specific activity of plutonium-239 is 0.0614 Ci/g, so that 16 g of plutonium correspond to 1 Ci. If, up to 1971 then, a total of 2.1 X 10 5 Ci of plutonium have been
delivered into the world oceans, this is equivalent to 3 t of plutonium. According to
some information, the nuclear weapons stored in the arsenals of the Nuclear Superpowers contain 10 7 Ci of plutonium. It appears superfluous to speculate about the
intensity of radioactive fall-out, in the form of plutonium and other fiSSion-products
like strontium-90 and caesium-137, that would result if this potential of nuclear
weapons were put into use. It can, however, be concluded that these nuclear weapons
constitute the greatest danger for the world and consequently also for the world
oceans. In Western Europe alone 7000 tactical nuclear war heads are stored, altogether mention is made of 50,000 nuclear devices.
Up to now accidents involving nuclear weapons were of little importance. On 21 January 1968 a U.S. atomic bomber crashed into the ocean in the vicinity of Thule in
Greenland: high concentrations of plutonium were measured as far as 15 km away
from where the bomber had crashed and even in 1974,25-30 Ci corresponding to
roughly 0.5 kg of plutonium, could be detected in the sediments of the crash site,
meaning that it had therefore not spread far over the ocean (Aarkrog 1977).
6.2 Reprocessing Plants, Plutonium Plants, and Nuclear Reactors
Where highly enriched nuclear fuels that can also be applied for nuclear weapons are
being produced, the environment may be exposed to a high dosage of radiation.
From 1944 to 1971 the U.s. plutonium plant Hanford on the Columbia River was
using the river water as coolant, with the result that, per month, 25,000 Ci in form of
60 different radioactive substances, among others zinc-6s and chromium-s 1, that are
extensively accumulated in organisms, reached the Pacific Ocean 360 miles away.
In the meantime circulatory cooling has been abolished and the radioactive contamination of the coastal waters has stopped. European plants, however, do not only utilize
water for cooling purposes, they also release radioactive wastes into the ocean. This is
for instance the case in Windscale by the Irish Sea and (on a smaller scale) in Dounreay in Northern Scotland, as well as in the French plant La Hague by the English
Channel. In these plants spent-fuel elements for nuclear reactors are regenerated, by
chemically separating the undesired substances produced in the fuel elements, while
the nuclear plant is in operation, from the uranium. In 1974 Windscale was allowed
to dispose of 300,000 Ci of beta-emitters into the Irish Sea; 207,000 Ci equivalent to
69% of the allowed amount were thus disposed of (Hetherington 1976).
During 1971 the following amounts of radioactive isotopes were released from Windscale into the sea together with waste water (Woodhead 1973):
109
extensively (ls,OOO-fold) so that concentrations of up to 1-10 pCi/kg of dry sediment develop in German coastal areas.
Concentration levels in organisms vary enormously: in large algae: 0.3-0.6 pCi/kg
(wet weight), in invertebrates: 0.2-3.5 pCi/kg (wet weight), in fish however, below
0.01 pCi/kg (wet weight) in the muscle tissue and slightly higher in the liver.
The specific activity of plutonium-239 is 0.0614 Ci/g, so that 16 g of plutonium correspond to 1 Ci. If, up to 1971 then, a total of 2.1 X 10 5 Ci of plutonium have been
delivered into the world oceans, this is equivalent to 3 t of plutonium. According to
some information, the nuclear weapons stored in the arsenals of the Nuclear Superpowers contain 10 7 Ci of plutonium. It appears superfluous to speculate about the
intensity of radioactive fall-out, in the form of plutonium and other fiSSion-products
like strontium-90 and caesium-137, that would result if this potential of nuclear
weapons were put into use. It can, however, be concluded that these nuclear weapons
constitute the greatest danger for the world and consequently also for the world
oceans. In Western Europe alone 7000 tactical nuclear war heads are stored, altogether mention is made of 50,000 nuclear devices.
Up to now accidents involving nuclear weapons were of little importance. On 21 January 1968 a U.S. atomic bomber crashed into the ocean in the vicinity of Thule in
Greenland: high concentrations of plutonium were measured as far as 15 km away
from where the bomber had crashed and even in 1974,25-30 Ci corresponding to
roughly 0.5 kg of plutonium, could be detected in the sediments of the crash site,
meaning that it had therefore not spread far over the ocean (Aarkrog 1977).
6.2 Reprocessing Plants, Plutonium Plants, and Nuclear Reactors
Where highly enriched nuclear fuels that can also be applied for nuclear weapons are
being produced, the environment may be exposed to a high dosage of radiation.
From 1944 to 1971 the U.s. plutonium plant Hanford on the Columbia River was
using the river water as coolant, with the result that, per month, 25,000 Ci in form of
60 different radioactive substances, among others zinc-6s and chromium-s 1, that are
extensively accumulated in organisms, reached the Pacific Ocean 360 miles away.
In the meantime circulatory cooling has been abolished and the radioactive contamination of the coastal waters has stopped. European plants, however, do not only utilize
water for cooling purposes, they also release radioactive wastes into the ocean. This is
for instance the case in Windscale by the Irish Sea and (on a smaller scale) in Dounreay in Northern Scotland, as well as in the French plant La Hague by the English
Channel. In these plants spent-fuel elements for nuclear reactors are regenerated, by
chemically separating the undesired substances produced in the fuel elements, while
the nuclear plant is in operation, from the uranium. In 1974 Windscale was allowed
to dispose of 300,000 Ci of beta-emitters into the Irish Sea; 207,000 Ci equivalent to
69% of the allowed amount were thus disposed of (Hetherington 1976).
During 1971 the following amounts of radioactive isotopes were released from Windscale into the sea together with waste water (Woodhead 1973):
109