Marine Dinofl
789
Part F | 33.1
33. Marine Dinoflagellate-Associated
Human Poisoning
Samanta S. Khora
Seafood poisoning in humans is caused by consumption of toxin-containing seafood that is
contaminated with marine dinoflagellates. This
has been a concern for many years. There are
a number of dinoflagellate species that produce
strong neurotoxins, which are often associated
with the phenomenon called red tide. Outbreaks
of red tide are caused by harmful algal blooms
(HABs). HABs are not a new phenomenon, with
written references dating back to biblical times.
The most common type of HAB is referred to as
a red tide because the bloom discolors the water,
making it appear red. Humans eating seafood from
infested areas during dinoflagellate bloom can become poisoned. With respect to the contaminants
of toxic dinoflagellates in seafood, there are two
main types of poisoning in humans. The terms fish
and shellfish are associated with these illnesses
because the toxins are concentrated in fish and
shellfish that ingest the harmful dinoflagellates.
According to the species of toxigenic dinoflagellates the poisoning syndromes have been given the
names paralytic (PSP), diarrhetic (DSP), neurotoxic
(NSP), and azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP).
Another human illness, ciguatera fish poisoning
(CFP) is caused by the ciguatoxins produced by dinoflagellates that attach to surfaces in many coral
reef communities [33.1]. Besides these well-known
poisoning types, several new poisoning syndromes
33.1 Preface................................................ 789
33.2 Historical Perspective........................... 791
33.3 Marine Dinoflagellates ......................... 792
33.3.1 Swimming Behavior .................. 792
33.3.2 Heterotrophy ............................ 792
33.3.3 Symbiosis ................................. 792
33.3.4 Bioluminescence ....................... 792
33.3.5 Toxicity ..................................... 793
33.4 Algal Blooms
and Red Tide Dinoflagellates................ 793
33.5 Toxigenic Dinoflagellate-Associated
Human Poisoning ................................ 794
33.5.1 Fish Poisoning in Humans.......... 795
33.5.2 Human Shellfish Poisoning ........ 798
33.6 Biotechnological Significance
of Toxic Marine Dinoflagellates ............. 805
33.7 Control and Prevention ........................ 806
33.8 Discussion and Conclusion.................... 807
References................................................... 808
resulting from newly appearing dinoflagellate toxins, such as yessotoxin (YTX) and palytoxin (PTX),
have been reported and characterized recently,
and this has increased global public concerns regarding dinoflagellates associated with humans
poisoning.
33.1 Preface
Dinoflagellates are an important group of phytoplankton in marine and freshwater. Dinoflagellates are considered to be protists, under the phylum Dinoflagellata
(Dinophyta) and class Dinophyceae [33.2]. They move
in marine and fresh water using two tail-like structures called flagella. Dinoflagellates are microalgae,
mostly unicellular, eukaryotic algae inhabiting freshwater and marine waters [33.3]. They have the characteristics of both plants and animals. They are known to
botanists as Pyrrophyta, while to zoologists they are
Mastigophora. They may be photosynthetic or nonphotosynthetic; about half the species fall into each
category. The photosynthetic dinoflagellates are second
only to diatoms as primary producers in coastal wa-
789
Part F | 33.1
33. Marine Dinoflagellate-Associated
Human Poisoning
Samanta S. Khora
Seafood poisoning in humans is caused by consumption of toxin-containing seafood that is
contaminated with marine dinoflagellates. This
has been a concern for many years. There are
a number of dinoflagellate species that produce
strong neurotoxins, which are often associated
with the phenomenon called red tide. Outbreaks
of red tide are caused by harmful algal blooms
(HABs). HABs are not a new phenomenon, with
written references dating back to biblical times.
The most common type of HAB is referred to as
a red tide because the bloom discolors the water,
making it appear red. Humans eating seafood from
infested areas during dinoflagellate bloom can become poisoned. With respect to the contaminants
of toxic dinoflagellates in seafood, there are two
main types of poisoning in humans. The terms fish
and shellfish are associated with these illnesses
because the toxins are concentrated in fish and
shellfish that ingest the harmful dinoflagellates.
According to the species of toxigenic dinoflagellates the poisoning syndromes have been given the
names paralytic (PSP), diarrhetic (DSP), neurotoxic
(NSP), and azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP).
Another human illness, ciguatera fish poisoning
(CFP) is caused by the ciguatoxins produced by dinoflagellates that attach to surfaces in many coral
reef communities [33.1]. Besides these well-known
poisoning types, several new poisoning syndromes
33.1 Preface................................................ 789
33.2 Historical Perspective........................... 791
33.3 Marine Dinoflagellates ......................... 792
33.3.1 Swimming Behavior .................. 792
33.3.2 Heterotrophy ............................ 792
33.3.3 Symbiosis ................................. 792
33.3.4 Bioluminescence ....................... 792
33.3.5 Toxicity ..................................... 793
33.4 Algal Blooms
and Red Tide Dinoflagellates................ 793
33.5 Toxigenic Dinoflagellate-Associated
Human Poisoning ................................ 794
33.5.1 Fish Poisoning in Humans.......... 795
33.5.2 Human Shellfish Poisoning ........ 798
33.6 Biotechnological Significance
of Toxic Marine Dinoflagellates ............. 805
33.7 Control and Prevention ........................ 806
33.8 Discussion and Conclusion.................... 807
References................................................... 808
resulting from newly appearing dinoflagellate toxins, such as yessotoxin (YTX) and palytoxin (PTX),
have been reported and characterized recently,
and this has increased global public concerns regarding dinoflagellates associated with humans
poisoning.
33.1 Preface
Dinoflagellates are an important group of phytoplankton in marine and freshwater. Dinoflagellates are considered to be protists, under the phylum Dinoflagellata
(Dinophyta) and class Dinophyceae [33.2]. They move
in marine and fresh water using two tail-like structures called flagella. Dinoflagellates are microalgae,
mostly unicellular, eukaryotic algae inhabiting freshwater and marine waters [33.3]. They have the characteristics of both plants and animals. They are known to
botanists as Pyrrophyta, while to zoologists they are
Mastigophora. They may be photosynthetic or nonphotosynthetic; about half the species fall into each
category. The photosynthetic dinoflagellates are second
only to diatoms as primary producers in coastal wa-