1.4 Applications of Marine Biotechnology 5
Introduction
Table 1.2 Examples of market level marine-derived products
Products
Source
Application
Ara-A
Marine sponge
Antiviral
Ara-C
Marine sponge
Anticancer
Okadaic acid
Dinoflagellate
Molecular probe
Manoalide
Marine sponge
Molecular probe
Vent TMA polymerase
Deep-sea hydrothermal vent bacterium PCR enzyme
Aequorin
Bioluminescent jelly fish
Bioluminescent calcium indicator
Green fluorescent protein Bioluminescent jelly fish
Reporter gene
Phycoerythrin
Red algae
Conjugated antibodies used in ELISAs and flow cytometry
Cephalosporins
Cephalosporium sp., marine fungi
Antibiotic
in clinical trials, and large number of pre-clinical investigations, coming from a wide range of marine
sources from many different parts around the world.
Prialt ziconotide, a painkiller originally isolated from
a Pacific (Philippines) cone snail, Yondelis trabectidin,
an anticancer molecule from the Caribbean tunicate
Ecteinascidia turbinata, and 3-(2,4-dimethoxybenzylidene)-anabaseine (DMXBA) from the ribbon worm
Paranemertes peregrina, from the Pacific Rim, are
a few examples [1.10] (Table 1.2). 59 marine compounds have been reported to affect the cardiovascular,
immune, and nervous systems, as well as to possess
anti- inflammatory effects. 65 marine metabolites have
been shown to bind to a variety of receptors and miscellaneous molecular targets, and thus upon further completion of the mechanism of action studies, will contribute to several pharmacological classes [1.34]. The
route to market involves isolation and chemical characterization, followed by synthesis or semi-synthesis of
the molecule or an active analog.
Natural product lead compounds from sponges
have often been found to be promising pharmaceutical
agents. Most of these drugs are used in the treatment of
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the herpes simplex virus (HSV). The most important antiviral
lead of marine origin reported thus far is a nucleoside
Ara-A (vidarabine), isolated from the sponge Tethya
crypta. Marine compounds that act on the six hallmarks
of cancer presented self-sufficiency in growth signals,
insensitivity to antigrowth signals, evasion of apoptosis,
limitless replication, sustained angiogenesis and tissue
invasion, and metastasis [1.35–39].
Marine microbes have a huge biochemical diversity and are likely to become a rich source of novel
drugs. Marine microbial compounds are an important
source for drug development [1.22]. Marine bacteria
are one of the important sources for many bioactive
compounds, antibiotics, and pharmaceuticals. They are
usually found in marine sediments and are also found
to be associated with marine organisms [1.40]. Marine fungi are also reported to be a potential source for
bioactive compounds. Polyketide synthases are a class
of enzymes that are involved in the biosynthesis of
secondary metabolites (erythromycin, rapamycin, tetracycline, lovastatin, and resveratrol).
Actinomycetes are one of the most efficient groups
of secondary metabolite producers; they exhibit a wide
range of biological activities, including antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, and insecticidal, and enzyme inhibition. Several species have been isolated and screened
from the soil in the past decades. Among its various genera, Streptomyces, Saccharopolyspora, Amycolatopsis,
Micromonospora, and Actinoplanes are the major producers of commercially important biomolecules [1.41].
Actinomycetes are virtually unlimited sources of new
compounds with many therapeutic applications and hold
a prominent position due to their diversity and proven
ability to produce novel bioactive compounds; 70% of
which are produced by actinomycetes, 20% from fungi,
7% from Bacillus sp. and 12% by other bacteria [1.42].
Antimicrobial peptides are promising candidates, because their initial interaction with microbes is through
binding to lipids [1.43].
Dinoflagellate toxins and bioactives are of increasing interest because of their commercial impact [1.44].
Functional screens to isolate novel cellulases, lipases
and esterases, proteases, laccases, oxidoreductases, and
biosurfactants have been described [1.45]. Enzyme inhibitors have received increasing attention as useful
tools for the study of enzyme structures and their mechanisms. Marine organisms have been documented as
a productive source for the enzyme inhibitors. Several commercialized products are shown in Table 1.2.
Arebinosyl cytosine (Ara-C) is currently sold by the
Pharmacia and Upjohn company under the brand name
Cytosar-R [1.10].
Introduction
Table 1.2 Examples of market level marine-derived products
Products
Source
Application
Ara-A
Marine sponge
Antiviral
Ara-C
Marine sponge
Anticancer
Okadaic acid
Dinoflagellate
Molecular probe
Manoalide
Marine sponge
Molecular probe
Vent TMA polymerase
Deep-sea hydrothermal vent bacterium PCR enzyme
Aequorin
Bioluminescent jelly fish
Bioluminescent calcium indicator
Green fluorescent protein Bioluminescent jelly fish
Reporter gene
Phycoerythrin
Red algae
Conjugated antibodies used in ELISAs and flow cytometry
Cephalosporins
Cephalosporium sp., marine fungi
Antibiotic
in clinical trials, and large number of pre-clinical investigations, coming from a wide range of marine
sources from many different parts around the world.
Prialt ziconotide, a painkiller originally isolated from
a Pacific (Philippines) cone snail, Yondelis trabectidin,
an anticancer molecule from the Caribbean tunicate
Ecteinascidia turbinata, and 3-(2,4-dimethoxybenzylidene)-anabaseine (DMXBA) from the ribbon worm
Paranemertes peregrina, from the Pacific Rim, are
a few examples [1.10] (Table 1.2). 59 marine compounds have been reported to affect the cardiovascular,
immune, and nervous systems, as well as to possess
anti- inflammatory effects. 65 marine metabolites have
been shown to bind to a variety of receptors and miscellaneous molecular targets, and thus upon further completion of the mechanism of action studies, will contribute to several pharmacological classes [1.34]. The
route to market involves isolation and chemical characterization, followed by synthesis or semi-synthesis of
the molecule or an active analog.
Natural product lead compounds from sponges
have often been found to be promising pharmaceutical
agents. Most of these drugs are used in the treatment of
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the herpes simplex virus (HSV). The most important antiviral
lead of marine origin reported thus far is a nucleoside
Ara-A (vidarabine), isolated from the sponge Tethya
crypta. Marine compounds that act on the six hallmarks
of cancer presented self-sufficiency in growth signals,
insensitivity to antigrowth signals, evasion of apoptosis,
limitless replication, sustained angiogenesis and tissue
invasion, and metastasis [1.35–39].
Marine microbes have a huge biochemical diversity and are likely to become a rich source of novel
drugs. Marine microbial compounds are an important
source for drug development [1.22]. Marine bacteria
are one of the important sources for many bioactive
compounds, antibiotics, and pharmaceuticals. They are
usually found in marine sediments and are also found
to be associated with marine organisms [1.40]. Marine fungi are also reported to be a potential source for
bioactive compounds. Polyketide synthases are a class
of enzymes that are involved in the biosynthesis of
secondary metabolites (erythromycin, rapamycin, tetracycline, lovastatin, and resveratrol).
Actinomycetes are one of the most efficient groups
of secondary metabolite producers; they exhibit a wide
range of biological activities, including antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, and insecticidal, and enzyme inhibition. Several species have been isolated and screened
from the soil in the past decades. Among its various genera, Streptomyces, Saccharopolyspora, Amycolatopsis,
Micromonospora, and Actinoplanes are the major producers of commercially important biomolecules [1.41].
Actinomycetes are virtually unlimited sources of new
compounds with many therapeutic applications and hold
a prominent position due to their diversity and proven
ability to produce novel bioactive compounds; 70% of
which are produced by actinomycetes, 20% from fungi,
7% from Bacillus sp. and 12% by other bacteria [1.42].
Antimicrobial peptides are promising candidates, because their initial interaction with microbes is through
binding to lipids [1.43].
Dinoflagellate toxins and bioactives are of increasing interest because of their commercial impact [1.44].
Functional screens to isolate novel cellulases, lipases
and esterases, proteases, laccases, oxidoreductases, and
biosurfactants have been described [1.45]. Enzyme inhibitors have received increasing attention as useful
tools for the study of enzyme structures and their mechanisms. Marine organisms have been documented as
a productive source for the enzyme inhibitors. Several commercialized products are shown in Table 1.2.
Arebinosyl cytosine (Ara-C) is currently sold by the
Pharmacia and Upjohn company under the brand name
Cytosar-R [1.10].