Part C | 17
470 Part C Marine Genomics
vant compounds. However, as DNA sequencing and
synthesis costs rapidly decrease, eDNA methods are
becoming the mainstays of natural product discovery
and research. Coupling metagenomics with expression
holds much promise for the sustainable exploitation
of the chemical diversity present in the sponge microbial community and also enables us to identify the
cryptic pathways of natural product biosynthesis in individual microbes. The broadest application of next
generation sequencing has enhanced our understanding
of sponge microbial diversity and its symbiotic association. Further, the metagenomics has revealed the role
of sponge microbes in nitrogen cycling by the analysis of functional genes involved in ammonia oxidization
and denitrification. Thus, this method provides a bright
future for the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals from
marine sponges and for a better understanding of the
microbial symbiotic roles in sponges.
However, the standard metagenomic approach of
accessing the entire genetic material associated within
sponges could not explore the active gene. To overcome
this problem, metatranscriptomic-based approaches
have been employed to study marine microbial populations, in which only transcriptionally active genes
are accessed. Applying this approach to the study of
sponges has resulted in the detection of genes known
to be involved in key aspects of their metabolism, and
in addition many unique transcripts, presumably also
of biochemical importance have been detected. Another alternative strategy to accessing the metagenome
for proteins within sponges is metaproteomics. This
has proven to be useful in providing new physiological data such as the identification of proteins that are
essential for sponge symbiosis. It is clear that novel
screening tools would discover novel metabolites from
sponges.
References
17.1
W. Ogle: Aristotle. On the Parts of Animals (Kegan
Paul, Trench, London 1882)
17.2
R.E. Grant: The Encyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology (Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper, London 1836)
17.3
J.N.A. Hooper, R.W.M. van Soest: Systema Porifera:
A Guide to the Classification of Sponges (Kluwer,
New York 2002)
17.4
M.W. Taylor, R. Radax, D. Steger, M. Wagner: Sponge
associated microorganisms: Evolution, ecology,
and biotechnological potential, Microbiol. Mol.
Biol. Rev. 71(2), 295–347 (2007)
17.5
N.S. Webster, K.J. Wilson, L.L. Blackall, R.T. Hill:
Phylogenetic diversity of bacteria associated with
the marine sponge Rhodaloeides odorabile, Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 67, 434–444 (2001)
17.6
H.M. Reiswig: Water transport, respiration and energetics of three tropical marine sponges, J. Exp.
Mar. Biol. Ecol. 14, 231–249 (1974)
17.7
A.B. Friedrich, H. Merkert, T. Fendert, J. Hacker,
P. Proksch, U. Hentschel: Microbial diversity in
the marine sponge Aplysina cavernicola (formerly
Verongia cavernicola) analyzed by fluorescence in
situ hybridisation (FISH), Mar. Biol. 134, 461–470
(1999)
17.8
C.R. Wilkinson: Net primary productivity in coral
reef sponges, Science 219, 410–412 (1983)
17.9
C.R. Wilkinson: Interocean differences in size and
nutrition of coral reef sponge populations, Science
236, 1654–1657 (1987)
17.10 A. Arillo, G. Bavestrello, B. Burlando, M. Sara:
Metabolic
integration
between
symbiotic
cyanobacteria and sponges – a possible mechanism, Mar. Biol. 117, 159–162 (1993)
17.11 P.P. Madri, M. Hermel, G. Claus: The microbial flora
of the sponge Microcionia prolifera VERRILL and its
ecological implications, Bot. Mar. XIV, 1–5 (1971)
17.12 C.R. Wilkinson: Immunological evidence for the
Precambrian origin of bacterial symbioses in marine sponges, Proc. R. Soc. 220, 509–517 (1984)
17.13 C.R. Wilkinson, M. Nowak, B. Austin, R.R. Colwell:
Specificity of bacterial symbionts in Mediterranean
and Great Barrier Reef sponges, Microb. Ecol. 7, 13–
21 (1981)
17.14 C.R. Wilkinson, R. Garrone, J. Vacelet: Marine
sponges discriminate between food bacteria and
bacterial symbionts: electron microscope radioautography and in situ evidence, Proc. R. Soc. B. 220,
519–528 (1984)
17.15 R. Osinga, J. Tramper, R.H. Wijffels: Cultivation of
marine sponges for metabolite production: applications for biotechnology?, Trends Biotechnol. 16,
130–134 (1998)
17.16 W. Reisser (Ed.): Algae and Symbioses: Plants, Animals, Fungi, Viruses, Interactions Explored (Biopress Limited, Bristol 1992)
17.17 Z. Yu, B. Zhang, W. Sun, F. Zhang, Z. Li: Phylogenetically diverse endozoic fungi in the South China Sea
sponges and their potential in synthesizing bioactive natural products suggested by PKS gene and
cytotoxic activity analysis, Fungal Divers. 58(1), 127–
141 (2012)
17.18 M. Maldonado, N. Cortadellas, M.I. Trillas, K. Rutzler: Endo symbiotic yeast maternally transmitted
in a marine sponge, Biol. Bull. 209, 94–106 (2005)
17.19 J. Vacelet, M.F. Gallissian: Virus-like particles
in cells of the sponge Verongia cavernicola
470 Part C Marine Genomics
vant compounds. However, as DNA sequencing and
synthesis costs rapidly decrease, eDNA methods are
becoming the mainstays of natural product discovery
and research. Coupling metagenomics with expression
holds much promise for the sustainable exploitation
of the chemical diversity present in the sponge microbial community and also enables us to identify the
cryptic pathways of natural product biosynthesis in individual microbes. The broadest application of next
generation sequencing has enhanced our understanding
of sponge microbial diversity and its symbiotic association. Further, the metagenomics has revealed the role
of sponge microbes in nitrogen cycling by the analysis of functional genes involved in ammonia oxidization
and denitrification. Thus, this method provides a bright
future for the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals from
marine sponges and for a better understanding of the
microbial symbiotic roles in sponges.
However, the standard metagenomic approach of
accessing the entire genetic material associated within
sponges could not explore the active gene. To overcome
this problem, metatranscriptomic-based approaches
have been employed to study marine microbial populations, in which only transcriptionally active genes
are accessed. Applying this approach to the study of
sponges has resulted in the detection of genes known
to be involved in key aspects of their metabolism, and
in addition many unique transcripts, presumably also
of biochemical importance have been detected. Another alternative strategy to accessing the metagenome
for proteins within sponges is metaproteomics. This
has proven to be useful in providing new physiological data such as the identification of proteins that are
essential for sponge symbiosis. It is clear that novel
screening tools would discover novel metabolites from
sponges.
References
17.1
W. Ogle: Aristotle. On the Parts of Animals (Kegan
Paul, Trench, London 1882)
17.2
R.E. Grant: The Encyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology (Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper, London 1836)
17.3
J.N.A. Hooper, R.W.M. van Soest: Systema Porifera:
A Guide to the Classification of Sponges (Kluwer,
New York 2002)
17.4
M.W. Taylor, R. Radax, D. Steger, M. Wagner: Sponge
associated microorganisms: Evolution, ecology,
and biotechnological potential, Microbiol. Mol.
Biol. Rev. 71(2), 295–347 (2007)
17.5
N.S. Webster, K.J. Wilson, L.L. Blackall, R.T. Hill:
Phylogenetic diversity of bacteria associated with
the marine sponge Rhodaloeides odorabile, Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 67, 434–444 (2001)
17.6
H.M. Reiswig: Water transport, respiration and energetics of three tropical marine sponges, J. Exp.
Mar. Biol. Ecol. 14, 231–249 (1974)
17.7
A.B. Friedrich, H. Merkert, T. Fendert, J. Hacker,
P. Proksch, U. Hentschel: Microbial diversity in
the marine sponge Aplysina cavernicola (formerly
Verongia cavernicola) analyzed by fluorescence in
situ hybridisation (FISH), Mar. Biol. 134, 461–470
(1999)
17.8
C.R. Wilkinson: Net primary productivity in coral
reef sponges, Science 219, 410–412 (1983)
17.9
C.R. Wilkinson: Interocean differences in size and
nutrition of coral reef sponge populations, Science
236, 1654–1657 (1987)
17.10 A. Arillo, G. Bavestrello, B. Burlando, M. Sara:
Metabolic
integration
between
symbiotic
cyanobacteria and sponges – a possible mechanism, Mar. Biol. 117, 159–162 (1993)
17.11 P.P. Madri, M. Hermel, G. Claus: The microbial flora
of the sponge Microcionia prolifera VERRILL and its
ecological implications, Bot. Mar. XIV, 1–5 (1971)
17.12 C.R. Wilkinson: Immunological evidence for the
Precambrian origin of bacterial symbioses in marine sponges, Proc. R. Soc. 220, 509–517 (1984)
17.13 C.R. Wilkinson, M. Nowak, B. Austin, R.R. Colwell:
Specificity of bacterial symbionts in Mediterranean
and Great Barrier Reef sponges, Microb. Ecol. 7, 13–
21 (1981)
17.14 C.R. Wilkinson, R. Garrone, J. Vacelet: Marine
sponges discriminate between food bacteria and
bacterial symbionts: electron microscope radioautography and in situ evidence, Proc. R. Soc. B. 220,
519–528 (1984)
17.15 R. Osinga, J. Tramper, R.H. Wijffels: Cultivation of
marine sponges for metabolite production: applications for biotechnology?, Trends Biotechnol. 16,
130–134 (1998)
17.16 W. Reisser (Ed.): Algae and Symbioses: Plants, Animals, Fungi, Viruses, Interactions Explored (Biopress Limited, Bristol 1992)
17.17 Z. Yu, B. Zhang, W. Sun, F. Zhang, Z. Li: Phylogenetically diverse endozoic fungi in the South China Sea
sponges and their potential in synthesizing bioactive natural products suggested by PKS gene and
cytotoxic activity analysis, Fungal Divers. 58(1), 127–
141 (2012)
17.18 M. Maldonado, N. Cortadellas, M.I. Trillas, K. Rutzler: Endo symbiotic yeast maternally transmitted
in a marine sponge, Biol. Bull. 209, 94–106 (2005)
17.19 J. Vacelet, M.F. Gallissian: Virus-like particles
in cells of the sponge Verongia cavernicola