12
White 1970). It is postulated that this limestone platform that has been developing
since the late Triassic about 180 million years ago, mainly because of the plateau’s
composition, which includes a thick section of mostly under-formed carbonate
rocks (Hine 2013; Hoffmeister 1974; Randazzo and Jones 1997). It is also believed
that the development of the platform was controlled by regional subsidence of the
passive margin and eustatic sea-level changes that allowed the deposition of a thick
section of carbonate rock over many millions of years (Hine 2009; White 1970).
When evaluating the structure and stratigraphy of Florida, sedimentary formations resemble an anticline that plunges in a southeasterly direction from the Ocala
limestone dome (Randazzo and Jones 1997). Just as the Everglades give way to the
Gulf of Mexico, this Eocene limestone dips to a depth of approximately 365 m.
Younger limestone formations of the Oligocene and Miocene ages, which become
thicker as they approach the coastlines, can be found atop the Ocala formation
(White 1970). Both the Pliocene and Pleistocene strata, being that they were the last
to form, do not extend more than 50 m beneath the surface and are in fact are
exposed in many places in and around the Everglades (Bryan et al. 2008; Hine 2013;
Randazzo and Jones 1997).
The deposition of two Pliocene formations located in the Everglades, the
Caloosahatchee marl and the Tamiami limestone, most likely began with an
encroachment of the sea that extended beyond the latitude of Lake Okeechobee
(Mansfield 1932; White 1970). It was this deposition of the Pliocene material that
helped shape the present day topography of the Everglades. For example, the
Caloosahatchee marl, exposed along the banks of the Caloosahatchee River, consists of mostly fine sand with a large proportion of unbroken shells (Mansfield
1932). The Munsell Color Index for the marl ranges from white to light gray, blue,
or yellow. Deposited in a warm and shallow sea, this soil underlies a large portion
of south Florida below the 27th parallel. Water from the marl has been recorded to
have a high chloride content, mostly due to Pleistocene sea invasions and the influence of the Miocene rocks underneath it (Allison 1943; Cohen and Spackman
1984). The Tamiami limestone, on the other hand, comes to the surface in the lower
reaches of the Big Cypress Swamp in a wedge-shaped formation, inclining toward
the coast (White 1970). The calcareous sandstones and sandy limestones found in
this formation are among the most permeable ever recorded by geologists (McVoy
et al. 2011).
The first of the Pleistocene formations to be deposited, which are currently present in the southern and eastern parts of the Everglades, was the Miami Oolite (Hine
2013; Randazzo and Jones 1997). The oolite varies in thickness and is overlain by
sand, muck, and marl. It can appear as a white or light yellow limestone with very
high porosity as part of outcroppings along the east coast and in the banks of short
rivers (Bryan et al. 2008). Additionally, the Anastasia and Pamlico formations,
found mostly in the coastal ridge on the Atlantic and along the eastern borders of the
Everglades, are composed of sand, sandy limestone, and calcareous sandstone
(White 1970). In those areas where sands of these formations are mixed with organic
soils of the Everglades, crop production is very optimal and sought after (Fig. 1.5;
Finkl and Restrepo-Coupe 2007).
C.W. Finkl and C. Makowski
White 1970). It is postulated that this limestone platform that has been developing
since the late Triassic about 180 million years ago, mainly because of the plateau’s
composition, which includes a thick section of mostly under-formed carbonate
rocks (Hine 2013; Hoffmeister 1974; Randazzo and Jones 1997). It is also believed
that the development of the platform was controlled by regional subsidence of the
passive margin and eustatic sea-level changes that allowed the deposition of a thick
section of carbonate rock over many millions of years (Hine 2009; White 1970).
When evaluating the structure and stratigraphy of Florida, sedimentary formations resemble an anticline that plunges in a southeasterly direction from the Ocala
limestone dome (Randazzo and Jones 1997). Just as the Everglades give way to the
Gulf of Mexico, this Eocene limestone dips to a depth of approximately 365 m.
Younger limestone formations of the Oligocene and Miocene ages, which become
thicker as they approach the coastlines, can be found atop the Ocala formation
(White 1970). Both the Pliocene and Pleistocene strata, being that they were the last
to form, do not extend more than 50 m beneath the surface and are in fact are
exposed in many places in and around the Everglades (Bryan et al. 2008; Hine 2013;
Randazzo and Jones 1997).
The deposition of two Pliocene formations located in the Everglades, the
Caloosahatchee marl and the Tamiami limestone, most likely began with an
encroachment of the sea that extended beyond the latitude of Lake Okeechobee
(Mansfield 1932; White 1970). It was this deposition of the Pliocene material that
helped shape the present day topography of the Everglades. For example, the
Caloosahatchee marl, exposed along the banks of the Caloosahatchee River, consists of mostly fine sand with a large proportion of unbroken shells (Mansfield
1932). The Munsell Color Index for the marl ranges from white to light gray, blue,
or yellow. Deposited in a warm and shallow sea, this soil underlies a large portion
of south Florida below the 27th parallel. Water from the marl has been recorded to
have a high chloride content, mostly due to Pleistocene sea invasions and the influence of the Miocene rocks underneath it (Allison 1943; Cohen and Spackman
1984). The Tamiami limestone, on the other hand, comes to the surface in the lower
reaches of the Big Cypress Swamp in a wedge-shaped formation, inclining toward
the coast (White 1970). The calcareous sandstones and sandy limestones found in
this formation are among the most permeable ever recorded by geologists (McVoy
et al. 2011).
The first of the Pleistocene formations to be deposited, which are currently present in the southern and eastern parts of the Everglades, was the Miami Oolite (Hine
2013; Randazzo and Jones 1997). The oolite varies in thickness and is overlain by
sand, muck, and marl. It can appear as a white or light yellow limestone with very
high porosity as part of outcroppings along the east coast and in the banks of short
rivers (Bryan et al. 2008). Additionally, the Anastasia and Pamlico formations,
found mostly in the coastal ridge on the Atlantic and along the eastern borders of the
Everglades, are composed of sand, sandy limestone, and calcareous sandstone
(White 1970). In those areas where sands of these formations are mixed with organic
soils of the Everglades, crop production is very optimal and sought after (Fig. 1.5;
Finkl and Restrepo-Coupe 2007).
C.W. Finkl and C. Makowski