520
Ecological Assessments and Implementing Ecosystem Management
(Yaffee et aI., 1996; EPA, 1997). From the Yampa
River Basin in Colorado to the Catskills-Delaware
watershed in upstate New York to the Tensas River
basin in Louisiana, people have joined together in
exploring new ways to resolve thorny sociopolitical and biophysical problems. Some long-standing
examples of ecosystem management do exist, such
as 20-year-old efforts in the New Jersey Pinelands
(Collins and Russell, 1988). However, most ecosystem management projects are much more recent
(Yaffee, 1996). Given that creating, institutionalizing, and sustaining such partnerships over the long
term is a difficult task, success in this endeavor is
still far from secure.
35.3 Opportunities
Thus far we have focused on the challenges faced
in designing and carrying out successful ecological
assessments and using the results of assessments to
implement ecosystem management. We should not
conclude from this discussion that the future is
bleak for ecological assessment as a tool or ecosystem management as a conservation approach. In
fact, current and emerging opportunities exist for
undertaking, refining, and employing ecological assessment as a tool in support of broad land-use, resource management, and conservation decisions.
Examples of such opportunities include the gradually unfolding application of ecosystem management to conservation issues and specific developments in the use of environmental assessment tools
and approaches in fulfilling NEP A requirements.
35.3.1 Evolution of
Ecosystem Management
Over the past decade, ecosystem management has
been the subject of hundreds of books, journal articles, seminars, conferences, workshops, and even
congressional hearings. Ecosystem management
has not developed without controversy. Some critics believe that the goals of ecosystem management
disregard socially approved multiple-use resource
management objectives, as codified in existing
statutes, by dictating that ecosystems be returned
to some vaguely specified condition existing at a
time predating intense human impact (Sedjo, 1995).
For others, the problems involve undue restrictions
on economic use of public lands, increased government control over private lands, and the general
subordination of private property rights and human
welfare to environmental protection (Fitzsimmons,
1994, 1998). Still others question the efficacy of
ecosystem management from a process perspective,
expressing doubt that a few neighbors sitting down
together can adequately resolve complex cultural,
social, economic, political, and biophysical questions (Coggins, 1998). From a very different
perspective, the prevalent version of ecosystem
management is faulted for being inherently anthropocentric, resting on assumptions that are presumptuous and false, and doomed to failure because it ignores the root causes of environmental
problems (Stanley, 1995). And, from the scientific
community, critics raise concerns about the ability,
willingness, and preparation of science and scientists to contribute meaningfully to developing and
implementing ecosystem management (Hilborn
and Ludwig, 1993; Cooperrider, 1996).
After so much scrutiny, where do we stand in
developing and implementing ecological approaches to land and resource management? Highlevel federal environmental and natural resource
management policy reviews have endorsed ecosystem approaches to managing the nation's land and
natural resources (IEMTF, 1995; PCSD, 1996). In
addition, each of the major regulatory, land management, and natural resources agencies has drafted
policy guidance regarding ecosystem management
(Haeuber, 1996). At the state level, ecosystem management is being adopted as an approach for addressing natural resource management and environmental protection issues (Brown and Marshall,
1996). Various sectors of business and industry,
such as forestry and utility companies, are also exploring ecosystem approaches for managing land
and resources that they own or control (Heissenbuttel, 1996; Mattice et aI., 1996). And, as discussed above, the many local- to regional-scale
ecosystem management efforts underway around
the country bear witness to the outpouring of creative energy unleashed in recent years (see Chapters 1 through 4).
Perhaps most importantly, however, it appears
that the legal and policy framework is changing in
ways that support greater use of ecological approaches to land management in the United States.
With regard to public lands, for example, laws such
as the National Forest Management Act, Federal
Land Policy Management Act, Endangered Species
Act, National Environmental Policy Act, and the
National Park Service Organic Act collectively provide a strong base from which to make a legal case
supporting ecosystem management (Keiter, 1994).
True, these statutes are not new, harking back to
the 1960s, 1970s, and even the early years of the
twentieth century in the case of the National Park
Ecological Assessments and Implementing Ecosystem Management
(Yaffee et aI., 1996; EPA, 1997). From the Yampa
River Basin in Colorado to the Catskills-Delaware
watershed in upstate New York to the Tensas River
basin in Louisiana, people have joined together in
exploring new ways to resolve thorny sociopolitical and biophysical problems. Some long-standing
examples of ecosystem management do exist, such
as 20-year-old efforts in the New Jersey Pinelands
(Collins and Russell, 1988). However, most ecosystem management projects are much more recent
(Yaffee, 1996). Given that creating, institutionalizing, and sustaining such partnerships over the long
term is a difficult task, success in this endeavor is
still far from secure.
35.3 Opportunities
Thus far we have focused on the challenges faced
in designing and carrying out successful ecological
assessments and using the results of assessments to
implement ecosystem management. We should not
conclude from this discussion that the future is
bleak for ecological assessment as a tool or ecosystem management as a conservation approach. In
fact, current and emerging opportunities exist for
undertaking, refining, and employing ecological assessment as a tool in support of broad land-use, resource management, and conservation decisions.
Examples of such opportunities include the gradually unfolding application of ecosystem management to conservation issues and specific developments in the use of environmental assessment tools
and approaches in fulfilling NEP A requirements.
35.3.1 Evolution of
Ecosystem Management
Over the past decade, ecosystem management has
been the subject of hundreds of books, journal articles, seminars, conferences, workshops, and even
congressional hearings. Ecosystem management
has not developed without controversy. Some critics believe that the goals of ecosystem management
disregard socially approved multiple-use resource
management objectives, as codified in existing
statutes, by dictating that ecosystems be returned
to some vaguely specified condition existing at a
time predating intense human impact (Sedjo, 1995).
For others, the problems involve undue restrictions
on economic use of public lands, increased government control over private lands, and the general
subordination of private property rights and human
welfare to environmental protection (Fitzsimmons,
1994, 1998). Still others question the efficacy of
ecosystem management from a process perspective,
expressing doubt that a few neighbors sitting down
together can adequately resolve complex cultural,
social, economic, political, and biophysical questions (Coggins, 1998). From a very different
perspective, the prevalent version of ecosystem
management is faulted for being inherently anthropocentric, resting on assumptions that are presumptuous and false, and doomed to failure because it ignores the root causes of environmental
problems (Stanley, 1995). And, from the scientific
community, critics raise concerns about the ability,
willingness, and preparation of science and scientists to contribute meaningfully to developing and
implementing ecosystem management (Hilborn
and Ludwig, 1993; Cooperrider, 1996).
After so much scrutiny, where do we stand in
developing and implementing ecological approaches to land and resource management? Highlevel federal environmental and natural resource
management policy reviews have endorsed ecosystem approaches to managing the nation's land and
natural resources (IEMTF, 1995; PCSD, 1996). In
addition, each of the major regulatory, land management, and natural resources agencies has drafted
policy guidance regarding ecosystem management
(Haeuber, 1996). At the state level, ecosystem management is being adopted as an approach for addressing natural resource management and environmental protection issues (Brown and Marshall,
1996). Various sectors of business and industry,
such as forestry and utility companies, are also exploring ecosystem approaches for managing land
and resources that they own or control (Heissenbuttel, 1996; Mattice et aI., 1996). And, as discussed above, the many local- to regional-scale
ecosystem management efforts underway around
the country bear witness to the outpouring of creative energy unleashed in recent years (see Chapters 1 through 4).
Perhaps most importantly, however, it appears
that the legal and policy framework is changing in
ways that support greater use of ecological approaches to land management in the United States.
With regard to public lands, for example, laws such
as the National Forest Management Act, Federal
Land Policy Management Act, Endangered Species
Act, National Environmental Policy Act, and the
National Park Service Organic Act collectively provide a strong base from which to make a legal case
supporting ecosystem management (Keiter, 1994).
True, these statutes are not new, harking back to
the 1960s, 1970s, and even the early years of the
twentieth century in the case of the National Park