30
The Great Lakes Ecological Assessment
David T. Cleland, Larry A. Leefers, J. Michael Vasievich, Thomas R. Crow,
and Eunice A. Padley
30.1 Introduction
French explorer Jean Nicolet led the first European
expedition to the northern Great Lakes region in
1634 (Steams, 1997). This began a period of exploration and fur trading that lasted into the early
19th century. Many small settlements were established as trading centers, army posts, and missions,
which subsequently grew into towns and cities as
the midwestern U.S. population grew, with an attending growth in the demand for lumber.
Although there were impacts from Native Americans dating back nearly 10,000 years (Denevan,
1992), it was the European advance that greatly altered the landscapes of the Great Lakes region (Andersen et aI., 1996). Following the exploitation and
collapse of furbearer populations, settlers turned
their attention to the forests (Catton, 1984). White
pine logging began about 1836 and, depending on
location, reached a peak between 1890 and 1910,
by which time virtually all merchantable pine had
been cut or destroyed by fire. During the white pine
We wish to acknowledge the many people and organizations who have contributed to the Great Lakes Eco~ogical Ass~ssment, especially Nancy Potter (NPR proJect champiOn) at the General Services Administration
and Chris Risbrudt, Ecosystem Management, USDA
For.est Service, Washington, DC; Jim Jordan, John
Wnght, Sharon Hobrla, Don Meyer, Kathleen McAllister, Jack Troyer, and Phyllis Green, USDA Forest Service; Steve Ventura, University of Wisconsin, Madison;
George Host, Natural Resources Research Institute, University of Minnesota, Duluth; Daniel Fitzpatrick, U.S.
Geological Service, Biological Resource Division; and
many people who have contributed to the GLA at the
USDA Forest Service, at the Land Infonnation Computer
Graphics Facility, University of Wisconsin at Madison,
at Michigan State University, and at the Departments of
Natural Resources in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.
era, hemlock was cut heavily as a source of tannin
for processing cowhides into leather, resulting in
the absence of this species in much of today's
forests. Shortly before the end of the white pine
era, harvesting of hardwoods began, continuing
into the 1930s. The impact of near-total deforestation was amplified by frequent and often catastrophic wildfires burning through slash, as well as
smaller fires that were deliberately set to clear land
or that started from railroad locomotives.
While supporting the explosive growth of the
Midwest, the tum of the century logging era wastefully exploited the forest resources of the three
Lake States: Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.
Today's forests, although generally younger and
less ecologically diverse than the original forests,
have exhibited remarkable resilience to early logging disturbance. As stated by Steams (1997, pp.
8-29).
In the immediate future, prospects for the Lake States
forests appear good. Growth exceeds wood removal, and
most forest managers are giving attention to sustained
management. New silvicultural approaches are being investigated, and the public is becoming better infonned.
Climatic change is probably the major threat; although
the simplification of the many forest systems may produce unforeseen declines as may infestations of exotic
insects and disease. Increasing human use, especially for
housing sites, also poses short- and long-tenn dangers.
Our forests are recovering from the destruction visited
on them by fire and human need and greed. To continue
to do so, they must be managed wisely and conservatively.
The northern Great Lakes region is of national
significance in many respects. Bordering our Canadian neighbors to the north, the region is characterized by extensive forestlands; the freshwater seas
of Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron; tens of
447
The Great Lakes Ecological Assessment
David T. Cleland, Larry A. Leefers, J. Michael Vasievich, Thomas R. Crow,
and Eunice A. Padley
30.1 Introduction
French explorer Jean Nicolet led the first European
expedition to the northern Great Lakes region in
1634 (Steams, 1997). This began a period of exploration and fur trading that lasted into the early
19th century. Many small settlements were established as trading centers, army posts, and missions,
which subsequently grew into towns and cities as
the midwestern U.S. population grew, with an attending growth in the demand for lumber.
Although there were impacts from Native Americans dating back nearly 10,000 years (Denevan,
1992), it was the European advance that greatly altered the landscapes of the Great Lakes region (Andersen et aI., 1996). Following the exploitation and
collapse of furbearer populations, settlers turned
their attention to the forests (Catton, 1984). White
pine logging began about 1836 and, depending on
location, reached a peak between 1890 and 1910,
by which time virtually all merchantable pine had
been cut or destroyed by fire. During the white pine
We wish to acknowledge the many people and organizations who have contributed to the Great Lakes Eco~ogical Ass~ssment, especially Nancy Potter (NPR proJect champiOn) at the General Services Administration
and Chris Risbrudt, Ecosystem Management, USDA
For.est Service, Washington, DC; Jim Jordan, John
Wnght, Sharon Hobrla, Don Meyer, Kathleen McAllister, Jack Troyer, and Phyllis Green, USDA Forest Service; Steve Ventura, University of Wisconsin, Madison;
George Host, Natural Resources Research Institute, University of Minnesota, Duluth; Daniel Fitzpatrick, U.S.
Geological Service, Biological Resource Division; and
many people who have contributed to the GLA at the
USDA Forest Service, at the Land Infonnation Computer
Graphics Facility, University of Wisconsin at Madison,
at Michigan State University, and at the Departments of
Natural Resources in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.
era, hemlock was cut heavily as a source of tannin
for processing cowhides into leather, resulting in
the absence of this species in much of today's
forests. Shortly before the end of the white pine
era, harvesting of hardwoods began, continuing
into the 1930s. The impact of near-total deforestation was amplified by frequent and often catastrophic wildfires burning through slash, as well as
smaller fires that were deliberately set to clear land
or that started from railroad locomotives.
While supporting the explosive growth of the
Midwest, the tum of the century logging era wastefully exploited the forest resources of the three
Lake States: Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.
Today's forests, although generally younger and
less ecologically diverse than the original forests,
have exhibited remarkable resilience to early logging disturbance. As stated by Steams (1997, pp.
8-29).
In the immediate future, prospects for the Lake States
forests appear good. Growth exceeds wood removal, and
most forest managers are giving attention to sustained
management. New silvicultural approaches are being investigated, and the public is becoming better infonned.
Climatic change is probably the major threat; although
the simplification of the many forest systems may produce unforeseen declines as may infestations of exotic
insects and disease. Increasing human use, especially for
housing sites, also poses short- and long-tenn dangers.
Our forests are recovering from the destruction visited
on them by fire and human need and greed. To continue
to do so, they must be managed wisely and conservatively.
The northern Great Lakes region is of national
significance in many respects. Bordering our Canadian neighbors to the north, the region is characterized by extensive forestlands; the freshwater seas
of Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron; tens of
447