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Assessing Human Processes in Society-Environment Interactions
major economic considerations. Some are local and
firm specific. For example, production involving
flammable processes may seek to locate near a
body of water. Others are more general and apply
to all industries in an area; for example, a tradition
of unionization may influence labor costs, and an
established transportation network reduces the
costs of moving raw materials and the final product. For industries in which transport costs account
for a significant proportion of production costs, the
relationship between the nature of raw materials or
components and the finished product has a strong
role in determining the location of the firm. Where
there is significant weight loss in the production
process, activities are oriented to locations near raw
materials, whereas those that gain weight in the
manufacturing process are market oriented. These
economic factors are modified by noneconomic
factors such as government policy on taxation, environmental quality, and land zoning.
The location of secondary economic activity has
a significant impact on the distribution of population. It provides employment directly to those involved in these activities and is also the basis for
employment in tertiary economic activities that
provide services to the industrial population. These
include the marketing of secondary products and
the organization of society, such as retailing, government services, and health services. These activities are demand oriented and thus have a strong
tendency toward agglomeration. They both respond
to and contribute to the process of urbanization.
Quaternary economic activities refer to those aspects of the economy that provide innovation. They
include research and development in specific industries, information technology, and the emergence of "green" technology in response to concern about environmental sustainability. Many of
these activities do not have specific locational requirements associated with land, labor, and capital.
They can be widely distributed, and, while strongly
linked to other sectors of the economy, these links
are often not bounded spatially.
In all sectors, economies of scale, both internal
and external, contribute to the spatial pattern of
economic activity. Firms achieve internal economies through increasing the size of the production
unit. Greater size raises demand for resources, including raw materials, land, electricity, water,
waste disposal, and labor. The impact on ecosystems and infrastructure is thus related to the unit of
production of individual firms. Firms also achieve
cost savings by locating close to related activities.
These are external economies. They are important
where industrial processes are complex and require
interaction between a number of activities. For example, the auto industry depends on the availability of component industries, including sheet metal,
upholstery, and tires, together with advertising,
banking, and insurance industries that specialize in
the needs of the auto industry. The proximate location of these activities improves efficiency and
innovation and thus reduces costs of production.
Distribution of Population
These distinct economic activities are associated
with different distributions of population and demands on ecosystems. The variations occur between economic activities and also among economic activities under different social, economic,
and political circumstances.
Industrialization has been a major force in influencing the growth and distribution of population.
It began with the Industrial Revolution in Europe
and is the preferred approach to economic and social development in most countries today. The transition from agrarian-based societies to industrial
ones is accompanied by a shift in emphasis from
primary to secondary, tertiary, and quaternary activities and by urbanization and its related redistribution of population from rural areas to towns and
cities.
The unevenness of economic opportunity both
within and between countries has resulted in complex patterns of migration. In the established industrial countries of Europe, North America, and
Japan, the process of rural to urban migration has
resulted in an urbanization rate of over 75%. The
opportunities for industrialization elsewhere have
been constrained by global economic patterns.
Some, such as the newly industrialized economies
of Asia, have developed complex industrial structures, and associated patterns of population redistribution to cities has occurred rapidly.
Where urbanization has been rapid, the ecological impacts on land, water, and air have been enormous and environmental quality has diminished.
Examples include air pollution in cities such as
Bangkok and Mexico City, urban sprawl in cities
of Latin America and Africa, and overloading of
waste disposal facilities in cities throughout the
world.
In other countries the opportunities for economic
gain in industrial cities are restricted by the limited
growth of the industrial economy. While perceived
economic opportunity in urban areas acts as a magnet to people in rural areas, the experience of many
migrants is one of failed ambitions and expectations. In these circumstances the exodus to the
Assessing Human Processes in Society-Environment Interactions
major economic considerations. Some are local and
firm specific. For example, production involving
flammable processes may seek to locate near a
body of water. Others are more general and apply
to all industries in an area; for example, a tradition
of unionization may influence labor costs, and an
established transportation network reduces the
costs of moving raw materials and the final product. For industries in which transport costs account
for a significant proportion of production costs, the
relationship between the nature of raw materials or
components and the finished product has a strong
role in determining the location of the firm. Where
there is significant weight loss in the production
process, activities are oriented to locations near raw
materials, whereas those that gain weight in the
manufacturing process are market oriented. These
economic factors are modified by noneconomic
factors such as government policy on taxation, environmental quality, and land zoning.
The location of secondary economic activity has
a significant impact on the distribution of population. It provides employment directly to those involved in these activities and is also the basis for
employment in tertiary economic activities that
provide services to the industrial population. These
include the marketing of secondary products and
the organization of society, such as retailing, government services, and health services. These activities are demand oriented and thus have a strong
tendency toward agglomeration. They both respond
to and contribute to the process of urbanization.
Quaternary economic activities refer to those aspects of the economy that provide innovation. They
include research and development in specific industries, information technology, and the emergence of "green" technology in response to concern about environmental sustainability. Many of
these activities do not have specific locational requirements associated with land, labor, and capital.
They can be widely distributed, and, while strongly
linked to other sectors of the economy, these links
are often not bounded spatially.
In all sectors, economies of scale, both internal
and external, contribute to the spatial pattern of
economic activity. Firms achieve internal economies through increasing the size of the production
unit. Greater size raises demand for resources, including raw materials, land, electricity, water,
waste disposal, and labor. The impact on ecosystems and infrastructure is thus related to the unit of
production of individual firms. Firms also achieve
cost savings by locating close to related activities.
These are external economies. They are important
where industrial processes are complex and require
interaction between a number of activities. For example, the auto industry depends on the availability of component industries, including sheet metal,
upholstery, and tires, together with advertising,
banking, and insurance industries that specialize in
the needs of the auto industry. The proximate location of these activities improves efficiency and
innovation and thus reduces costs of production.
Distribution of Population
These distinct economic activities are associated
with different distributions of population and demands on ecosystems. The variations occur between economic activities and also among economic activities under different social, economic,
and political circumstances.
Industrialization has been a major force in influencing the growth and distribution of population.
It began with the Industrial Revolution in Europe
and is the preferred approach to economic and social development in most countries today. The transition from agrarian-based societies to industrial
ones is accompanied by a shift in emphasis from
primary to secondary, tertiary, and quaternary activities and by urbanization and its related redistribution of population from rural areas to towns and
cities.
The unevenness of economic opportunity both
within and between countries has resulted in complex patterns of migration. In the established industrial countries of Europe, North America, and
Japan, the process of rural to urban migration has
resulted in an urbanization rate of over 75%. The
opportunities for industrialization elsewhere have
been constrained by global economic patterns.
Some, such as the newly industrialized economies
of Asia, have developed complex industrial structures, and associated patterns of population redistribution to cities has occurred rapidly.
Where urbanization has been rapid, the ecological impacts on land, water, and air have been enormous and environmental quality has diminished.
Examples include air pollution in cities such as
Bangkok and Mexico City, urban sprawl in cities
of Latin America and Africa, and overloading of
waste disposal facilities in cities throughout the
world.
In other countries the opportunities for economic
gain in industrial cities are restricted by the limited
growth of the industrial economy. While perceived
economic opportunity in urban areas acts as a magnet to people in rural areas, the experience of many
migrants is one of failed ambitions and expectations. In these circumstances the exodus to the