28
Assessing Human Processes in Society:
Environment Interactions
David J. Campbell
28.1 Introduction
Human activity has transformed Earth's surface, is
changing atmospheric conditions, and altering
aquatic ecosystems. Human impact is pervasive
but, depending on the activity and the aspects of
the ecosystem affected, the effects may be direct
or indirect, and the consequences range from localized and short term to extensive over both space
and time.
Assessment of interactions between societies and
natural ecosystems has to carefully consider the society involved-its values and aspirations, its science and technology, its economy and political institutions. These are not static, but dynamic. Yet
the dynamics are not unidirectional or predictable.
The complexity of interactions between ecological
and societal processes over time and across space
continues to challenge the scientific community.
Efforts to understand climate change, land cover
change, and land-atmosphere relationships struggle with both theoretical-conceptual issues and
with the complexities of modeling and related data
needs.
This chapter focuses on the importance of understanding the nature of interaction between societal and environmental processes that arise at and
between the local, national, and global scales. It begins with an overview of approaches that social scientists have adopted to examine society-environment interactions, linkages to the biophysical
sciences, and concepts that are critical to an appreciation of social processes. A presentation of
land-use systems, selected models, and economic
and noneconomic characteristics of human activity
follows. The chapter ends with a discussion of the
implications for methods of analyzing the interaction of human activity and ecosystems and con416
cludes that many of the key analytical concepts
identified by social scientists, such as scale, time,
and uncertainty, are shared by ecologists. This
common interest may encourage the emergence of
new approaches to the study of interactions between societal and biophysical systems based on
common goals, shared concepts, and respect for
concepts and methods that are not shared, but
which may contribute more effectively to understanding the complexity of these interactions.
28.2 Interaction between Society
and Environment: Conceptual
Frameworks in the
Social Sciences
Much of the concern with ecological sustainability
arises from divergent views of appropriate resource
management strategies (Colby, 1990). Although
accounts of the impact of society on the environment can be traced back to Aristotle and Hypocrites, the present century has witnessed the presentation of a series of conceptual frameworks in
the social sciences. These frameworks include the
following:
1. Those that see society as being an integral part
of nature, as illustrated by Buddhist ideology,
deep ecology, and the notion of Gaia (Lovelock,
1979, 1991). Policies stemming from these proposals include the exclusion of people from areas to re-create natural systems and less radical
ideas such as conservation and sustainable development.
2. Environmental determinism that sees biophysical conditions as determinants of the attributes
Assessing Human Processes in Society:
Environment Interactions
David J. Campbell
28.1 Introduction
Human activity has transformed Earth's surface, is
changing atmospheric conditions, and altering
aquatic ecosystems. Human impact is pervasive
but, depending on the activity and the aspects of
the ecosystem affected, the effects may be direct
or indirect, and the consequences range from localized and short term to extensive over both space
and time.
Assessment of interactions between societies and
natural ecosystems has to carefully consider the society involved-its values and aspirations, its science and technology, its economy and political institutions. These are not static, but dynamic. Yet
the dynamics are not unidirectional or predictable.
The complexity of interactions between ecological
and societal processes over time and across space
continues to challenge the scientific community.
Efforts to understand climate change, land cover
change, and land-atmosphere relationships struggle with both theoretical-conceptual issues and
with the complexities of modeling and related data
needs.
This chapter focuses on the importance of understanding the nature of interaction between societal and environmental processes that arise at and
between the local, national, and global scales. It begins with an overview of approaches that social scientists have adopted to examine society-environment interactions, linkages to the biophysical
sciences, and concepts that are critical to an appreciation of social processes. A presentation of
land-use systems, selected models, and economic
and noneconomic characteristics of human activity
follows. The chapter ends with a discussion of the
implications for methods of analyzing the interaction of human activity and ecosystems and con416
cludes that many of the key analytical concepts
identified by social scientists, such as scale, time,
and uncertainty, are shared by ecologists. This
common interest may encourage the emergence of
new approaches to the study of interactions between societal and biophysical systems based on
common goals, shared concepts, and respect for
concepts and methods that are not shared, but
which may contribute more effectively to understanding the complexity of these interactions.
28.2 Interaction between Society
and Environment: Conceptual
Frameworks in the
Social Sciences
Much of the concern with ecological sustainability
arises from divergent views of appropriate resource
management strategies (Colby, 1990). Although
accounts of the impact of society on the environment can be traced back to Aristotle and Hypocrites, the present century has witnessed the presentation of a series of conceptual frameworks in
the social sciences. These frameworks include the
following:
1. Those that see society as being an integral part
of nature, as illustrated by Buddhist ideology,
deep ecology, and the notion of Gaia (Lovelock,
1979, 1991). Policies stemming from these proposals include the exclusion of people from areas to re-create natural systems and less radical
ideas such as conservation and sustainable development.
2. Environmental determinism that sees biophysical conditions as determinants of the attributes