Introduction
Mark E. Jensen and Patrick S. Bourgeron
Ecological Assessments:
What Are They?
Ecological assessments are a critical component of
land management planning and regulatory decision
making. Their scope and nature commonly differ
due to the issues addressed; the discipline, agency,
or audience involved; and the associated legislative
or regulatory requirements (Lessard et aI., 1999).
In the United States, for example, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 directed
that all federal lands be managed to "encourage
productive and enjoyable harmony between man
and his environment; to promote efforts which will
prevent or eliminate damage to the environment
and biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare
of man; (and) to enrich understanding of the ecological systems and natural resources important to
the Nation." To ensure compliance with these objectives, NEPA dictated that the environmental
consequences associated with proposed management of federal lands be fully disclosed to the
general public through appropriate ecological assessment documents (e.g., environmental impact
assessments). In a similar manner, over 40 other
countries have legislated the use of some type of
ecological assessment as a prerequisite for effective environmental planning and land management
(Robinson, 1992; Treweek, 1999).
In the United States, most ecological assessments have as their purpose either regulatory decision making or land management planning.
Ecological risk assessment (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1992, 1998; National Research
Council, 1994) is a specific category of ecological
assessment designed to meet regulatory mandates.
Ecological risk assessment focuses on the relationships among one or more stressors and associated
ecological effects to assist environmental regulatory decision making. These assessments are usually geographically restricted and their scope narrowly defined to satisfy the regulations(s) that triggered them; however, they also may be conducted
at broader levels dependent on analysis needs
(Hunsaker et al., 1990; Graham et aI., 1991).
In contrast to regulatory-based ecological assessments, those based on land management planning objectives have traditionally followed methods of land evaluation that emphasize fundamental
questions such as what is there, where is it, when
is it present, and how does it function in determining optimal land use and required management actions for an assessment area (Klingebiel and Montgomery, 1961; Beek and Bannema, 1972; Olson,
1974; Food and Agriculture Organization, 1976,
1993; Zonneveld, 1988). Ecological assessments
for land management planning are often tactical
(project level) or strategic (regional or subregional
level) in scope (Treweek, 1999). To date, most ecological assessments within the United States have
been performed primarily at the project level (following NEPA guidelines) to evaluate environmental consequences associated with individual proposals or actions.
Because most project-level ecological assessments are limited in spatial scale and address a reduced set of issues, they often fail to meet the intent of NEPA (e.g., full disclosure of cumulative
effects, relation of proposed action to other resources). This situation has placed increased importance on the development of strategic regional
or subregional ecological assessments that provide
context for more localized project-level assessments (Ortolano and Shepherd, 1995). Such strategic ecological assessments also provide a framework for proactive assessments of the impact of
human activities and environmental changes at
broad spatial scales and the placement of sitespecific land-use impacts within an appropriate regional or national context (Therivel et aI., 1992;
Therivel and Rosario Piirtidorio, 1996; Therivel and
Thompson, 1996; Kessler, 1997).
Although ecological assessments can be con-
Mark E. Jensen and Patrick S. Bourgeron
Ecological Assessments:
What Are They?
Ecological assessments are a critical component of
land management planning and regulatory decision
making. Their scope and nature commonly differ
due to the issues addressed; the discipline, agency,
or audience involved; and the associated legislative
or regulatory requirements (Lessard et aI., 1999).
In the United States, for example, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 directed
that all federal lands be managed to "encourage
productive and enjoyable harmony between man
and his environment; to promote efforts which will
prevent or eliminate damage to the environment
and biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare
of man; (and) to enrich understanding of the ecological systems and natural resources important to
the Nation." To ensure compliance with these objectives, NEPA dictated that the environmental
consequences associated with proposed management of federal lands be fully disclosed to the
general public through appropriate ecological assessment documents (e.g., environmental impact
assessments). In a similar manner, over 40 other
countries have legislated the use of some type of
ecological assessment as a prerequisite for effective environmental planning and land management
(Robinson, 1992; Treweek, 1999).
In the United States, most ecological assessments have as their purpose either regulatory decision making or land management planning.
Ecological risk assessment (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1992, 1998; National Research
Council, 1994) is a specific category of ecological
assessment designed to meet regulatory mandates.
Ecological risk assessment focuses on the relationships among one or more stressors and associated
ecological effects to assist environmental regulatory decision making. These assessments are usually geographically restricted and their scope narrowly defined to satisfy the regulations(s) that triggered them; however, they also may be conducted
at broader levels dependent on analysis needs
(Hunsaker et al., 1990; Graham et aI., 1991).
In contrast to regulatory-based ecological assessments, those based on land management planning objectives have traditionally followed methods of land evaluation that emphasize fundamental
questions such as what is there, where is it, when
is it present, and how does it function in determining optimal land use and required management actions for an assessment area (Klingebiel and Montgomery, 1961; Beek and Bannema, 1972; Olson,
1974; Food and Agriculture Organization, 1976,
1993; Zonneveld, 1988). Ecological assessments
for land management planning are often tactical
(project level) or strategic (regional or subregional
level) in scope (Treweek, 1999). To date, most ecological assessments within the United States have
been performed primarily at the project level (following NEPA guidelines) to evaluate environmental consequences associated with individual proposals or actions.
Because most project-level ecological assessments are limited in spatial scale and address a reduced set of issues, they often fail to meet the intent of NEPA (e.g., full disclosure of cumulative
effects, relation of proposed action to other resources). This situation has placed increased importance on the development of strategic regional
or subregional ecological assessments that provide
context for more localized project-level assessments (Ortolano and Shepherd, 1995). Such strategic ecological assessments also provide a framework for proactive assessments of the impact of
human activities and environmental changes at
broad spatial scales and the placement of sitespecific land-use impacts within an appropriate regional or national context (Therivel et aI., 1992;
Therivel and Rosario Piirtidorio, 1996; Therivel and
Thompson, 1996; Kessler, 1997).
Although ecological assessments can be con-