exploring the scope of a problem with managers and stakeholders, developing a simple conceptual box-and-arrow diagram of an ecological system
is generally more appropriate and helpful than developing a complex
computer simulation model. Sometimes modelers are too quick to build
comprehensive, complex simulation models when managers need simpler
models to help organize their thinking and to communicate ideas and
assumptions (Starfield 1997). In other instances, models may not be useful
because they fail to adequately represent necessary details of the problem.
Managers primarily need to understand
• Data requirements to build and test different kinds of models
• Appropriate spatial and temporal scales needed to answer their management questions
• Tradeoffs between model complexity and generalization for their
applications
• Tradeoffs between using resources to develop models versus collecting
more field data (Reed et al. 1998)
Developing this understanding requires that managers and decision
makers be knowledgeable about the time and resources needed to build
and use ecological models. Time and resources will vary with the type and
purpose of the model and the level of complexity and accuracy needed for
the project. Providing accurate and reliable cost estimates for the development and use of models will be key in increasing the use of models in
management.
14.2.4 Methods for Educating Managers
and Decision Makers
Methods to educate managers and decision makers need to be flexible
and appropriate for different needs and different people. For example,
education of on-the-ground managers will probably occur under different
circumstances and using different methods than for mid- and high-level
decision makers. Decision makers may require less technical information
and more information on capabilities, limitations, and costs. Decision
makers will likely be educated and informed by the managers themselves.
Thus, managers will need to become articulate spokesmen for allocating
resources for modeling. Case studies that illustrate model capabilities and
how models have helped inform management decisions can be a powerful
method for educating and persuading decision makers [e.g., Tester et al.
(1997); see Table 13.2 in Chapter 13, this volume).
In contrast, on-the-ground managers and practitioners may demand
more detailed knowledge of models ranging from some of the technical
aspects to cost and resources. Resource managers often are essential partners in determining the most useful output of models. In some circum270
Thomas P. Maxwell et al.
is generally more appropriate and helpful than developing a complex
computer simulation model. Sometimes modelers are too quick to build
comprehensive, complex simulation models when managers need simpler
models to help organize their thinking and to communicate ideas and
assumptions (Starfield 1997). In other instances, models may not be useful
because they fail to adequately represent necessary details of the problem.
Managers primarily need to understand
• Data requirements to build and test different kinds of models
• Appropriate spatial and temporal scales needed to answer their management questions
• Tradeoffs between model complexity and generalization for their
applications
• Tradeoffs between using resources to develop models versus collecting
more field data (Reed et al. 1998)
Developing this understanding requires that managers and decision
makers be knowledgeable about the time and resources needed to build
and use ecological models. Time and resources will vary with the type and
purpose of the model and the level of complexity and accuracy needed for
the project. Providing accurate and reliable cost estimates for the development and use of models will be key in increasing the use of models in
management.
14.2.4 Methods for Educating Managers
and Decision Makers
Methods to educate managers and decision makers need to be flexible
and appropriate for different needs and different people. For example,
education of on-the-ground managers will probably occur under different
circumstances and using different methods than for mid- and high-level
decision makers. Decision makers may require less technical information
and more information on capabilities, limitations, and costs. Decision
makers will likely be educated and informed by the managers themselves.
Thus, managers will need to become articulate spokesmen for allocating
resources for modeling. Case studies that illustrate model capabilities and
how models have helped inform management decisions can be a powerful
method for educating and persuading decision makers [e.g., Tester et al.
(1997); see Table 13.2 in Chapter 13, this volume).
In contrast, on-the-ground managers and practitioners may demand
more detailed knowledge of models ranging from some of the technical
aspects to cost and resources. Resource managers often are essential partners in determining the most useful output of models. In some circum270
Thomas P. Maxwell et al.