scale of the question and also the type of model to be used. Environmental managers often deal with a single ownership, although it is recognized
that actions of adjacent owners must be considered (White et al. 1997) and
that natural boundaries are important.
Temporal scales of ecological models are highly variable. Some models
focus on processes that occur on the order of seconds to minutes while
others consider changes on the time scale of decades, centuries, or millennia. Because most environmental management decisions are considered
over years to decades, this book focuses on models that run over that time
period. However, some ecological impacts are not apparent for many
decades or even centuries, which makes it useful to consider models that
can forecast results for a longer period. In any case, the time scale of a
model needs to relate to the time scale of the management questions and
their implications.
Many ecological models exist, and they deal with all media (land, water,
and air) and associated biota. This volume applies to a diversity of environmental situations, but space is available to mention only a small number
of these models. The application of models is also discussed in several
volumes [e.g., Emlen (1989); Barnthouse (1992); Botkin (1992); Stalnaker
(1993); Jorgensen et al. (1996); McKelvey and Hull (1996); Jackson et al.
(2000); Akçakaya (2000); Akçakaya and Sjögren-Gulve (2000); Caswell
(2001)]. These sources should be consulted for further information and
insights. Modeling textbooks [e.g., Swartzman and Kaluzny (1987); Jeffers
(1988); Bossel (1994); Haefner (1996)] provide introductory explanations
of many aspects of ecological modeling. The textbooks are particularly
helpful because of their extensive examples. At present, no one place exists
where environmental managers can access the diversity of models that are
available to address the ecological aspects of environmental management
questions. The purpose of this book is to introduce the ways in which
ecological models can be used for decision making and to explore ways to
enhance their use.
1.3 The Roots of Modeling for
Environmental Management
1.3.1 The Beginnings of Ecological Modeling
The roots of ecological modeling for environmental management lie in
attempts to explain human population dynamics. The earliest explorations
of geometric progression provide a way to explain human population
growth (Hutchinson 1978). Recognition that an exponential growth of
people up to the sixteenth century would lead to an unrealistic estimate of
the people on the Earth in the future required rethinking the use of an
uncontrolled exponential growth curve.
1. Opportunities for Using Ecological Models for Resource Management
9
that actions of adjacent owners must be considered (White et al. 1997) and
that natural boundaries are important.
Temporal scales of ecological models are highly variable. Some models
focus on processes that occur on the order of seconds to minutes while
others consider changes on the time scale of decades, centuries, or millennia. Because most environmental management decisions are considered
over years to decades, this book focuses on models that run over that time
period. However, some ecological impacts are not apparent for many
decades or even centuries, which makes it useful to consider models that
can forecast results for a longer period. In any case, the time scale of a
model needs to relate to the time scale of the management questions and
their implications.
Many ecological models exist, and they deal with all media (land, water,
and air) and associated biota. This volume applies to a diversity of environmental situations, but space is available to mention only a small number
of these models. The application of models is also discussed in several
volumes [e.g., Emlen (1989); Barnthouse (1992); Botkin (1992); Stalnaker
(1993); Jorgensen et al. (1996); McKelvey and Hull (1996); Jackson et al.
(2000); Akçakaya (2000); Akçakaya and Sjögren-Gulve (2000); Caswell
(2001)]. These sources should be consulted for further information and
insights. Modeling textbooks [e.g., Swartzman and Kaluzny (1987); Jeffers
(1988); Bossel (1994); Haefner (1996)] provide introductory explanations
of many aspects of ecological modeling. The textbooks are particularly
helpful because of their extensive examples. At present, no one place exists
where environmental managers can access the diversity of models that are
available to address the ecological aspects of environmental management
questions. The purpose of this book is to introduce the ways in which
ecological models can be used for decision making and to explore ways to
enhance their use.
1.3 The Roots of Modeling for
Environmental Management
1.3.1 The Beginnings of Ecological Modeling
The roots of ecological modeling for environmental management lie in
attempts to explain human population dynamics. The earliest explorations
of geometric progression provide a way to explain human population
growth (Hutchinson 1978). Recognition that an exponential growth of
people up to the sixteenth century would lead to an unrealistic estimate of
the people on the Earth in the future required rethinking the use of an
uncontrolled exponential growth curve.
1. Opportunities for Using Ecological Models for Resource Management
9