862
K. M. G. Mostofa et al.
decade, with summer decreases of 7.4 % (5.0–9.8 %) per decade (IPCC 2007a).
The maximum surface of seasonally frozen ground has decreased by about 7 % in
the Northern Hemisphere since 1900. There have been decreases in spring of up to
15 % (IPCC 2007a). (iii) Increase in soil temperature that subsequently enhances
the soil respiration (Lloyd and Taylor 1994; Petersen and Klug 1994; Arnold
et al. 1999; Feng and Simpson 2008, 2009; Frey et al. 2008). (iv) Weather modifications that can enhance natural disasters such as tornadoes, typhoons, storms,
thunderstorms, and floods (Khalilov 2010). (v) Variations in water temperature
profiles that cause changes in the euphotic zone, induce a longer summer stratification period and high photoinduced degradation of DOM and OM, make harmful algal blooms more likely, induce alteration of DOM dynamics, and change the
seasonal patterns of chlorophyll or primary production and the nutrient concentrations. These effects induce as a consequence changes in species composition and
in the seasonality of the water column, and finally modify food webs among phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish and birds in the aquatic environment (Huisman et al.
2006; Baulch et al. 2005; Castle and Rodgers 2009; Davis et al. 2009; Kitaysky
and Golubova 2000; Hobson and McQuoid 2001; Mudie et al. 2002; Morrison
et al. 2002; Johannessen and Macdonald 2009). (vi) Increases in sea level. They
are consistent with warming and the global average sea level has risen at an average rate of 1.8 mm (1.3–2.3 mm) per year from 1961 to 2003. However, in the decade 1993–2003 the average rate has been of about 3.1 mm (2.4–3.8 mm) per year
(IPCC 2007a). An increase of the global average temperature of about 2 ºC may
cause a warming of about 2.7 ºC in the area around Greenland, possibly triggering
the loss of the Greenland ice-sheet. Such a process may cause a global sea-level
rise of 7 m over the next 1,000 years or more (Huybrechts et al. 1991; Gregory
et al. 2004a, b). The rise of the sea level introduces vulnerability issues for agriculture, food, water resources, coral reefs, low-lying estuaries, intertidal zones,
mudflats, mangrove forests, ecosystems and biodiversity (IPCC 2007a; Smith
et al. 2001; Johannessen and Macdonald 2009; Doney et al. 2009; Masson and
Cummins 2007; Burd et al. 2008a, b). The impacts on the coastal environments
may lead to changes in the food web and affect the diversity of higher trophic levels such as marine mammals, fish and birds. (vii) A total ozone reduction of 2.5 %
per decade during summer time causes a 5 % increase in UV irradiance (Varotsos
and Kondratiev 1995), with a direct impact on terrestrial and aquatic environments.
3 Environmental Processes of GHGs Emission Affecting
Global Warming
The key environmental processes of GHGs emission that may affect global
warming can be categorized as follows: (i) soil respiration; (ii) agricultural activities in soil; (iii) anthropogenic sources of atmospheric greenhouse gases; (iv)
deforestation; (v) photoinduced degradation of DOM and OM by natural sunlight; (vi) photoinduced degradation of OM in plants and soil environments.
K. M. G. Mostofa et al.
decade, with summer decreases of 7.4 % (5.0–9.8 %) per decade (IPCC 2007a).
The maximum surface of seasonally frozen ground has decreased by about 7 % in
the Northern Hemisphere since 1900. There have been decreases in spring of up to
15 % (IPCC 2007a). (iii) Increase in soil temperature that subsequently enhances
the soil respiration (Lloyd and Taylor 1994; Petersen and Klug 1994; Arnold
et al. 1999; Feng and Simpson 2008, 2009; Frey et al. 2008). (iv) Weather modifications that can enhance natural disasters such as tornadoes, typhoons, storms,
thunderstorms, and floods (Khalilov 2010). (v) Variations in water temperature
profiles that cause changes in the euphotic zone, induce a longer summer stratification period and high photoinduced degradation of DOM and OM, make harmful algal blooms more likely, induce alteration of DOM dynamics, and change the
seasonal patterns of chlorophyll or primary production and the nutrient concentrations. These effects induce as a consequence changes in species composition and
in the seasonality of the water column, and finally modify food webs among phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish and birds in the aquatic environment (Huisman et al.
2006; Baulch et al. 2005; Castle and Rodgers 2009; Davis et al. 2009; Kitaysky
and Golubova 2000; Hobson and McQuoid 2001; Mudie et al. 2002; Morrison
et al. 2002; Johannessen and Macdonald 2009). (vi) Increases in sea level. They
are consistent with warming and the global average sea level has risen at an average rate of 1.8 mm (1.3–2.3 mm) per year from 1961 to 2003. However, in the decade 1993–2003 the average rate has been of about 3.1 mm (2.4–3.8 mm) per year
(IPCC 2007a). An increase of the global average temperature of about 2 ºC may
cause a warming of about 2.7 ºC in the area around Greenland, possibly triggering
the loss of the Greenland ice-sheet. Such a process may cause a global sea-level
rise of 7 m over the next 1,000 years or more (Huybrechts et al. 1991; Gregory
et al. 2004a, b). The rise of the sea level introduces vulnerability issues for agriculture, food, water resources, coral reefs, low-lying estuaries, intertidal zones,
mudflats, mangrove forests, ecosystems and biodiversity (IPCC 2007a; Smith
et al. 2001; Johannessen and Macdonald 2009; Doney et al. 2009; Masson and
Cummins 2007; Burd et al. 2008a, b). The impacts on the coastal environments
may lead to changes in the food web and affect the diversity of higher trophic levels such as marine mammals, fish and birds. (vii) A total ozone reduction of 2.5 %
per decade during summer time causes a 5 % increase in UV irradiance (Varotsos
and Kondratiev 1995), with a direct impact on terrestrial and aquatic environments.
3 Environmental Processes of GHGs Emission Affecting
Global Warming
The key environmental processes of GHGs emission that may affect global
warming can be categorized as follows: (i) soil respiration; (ii) agricultural activities in soil; (iii) anthropogenic sources of atmospheric greenhouse gases; (iv)
deforestation; (v) photoinduced degradation of DOM and OM by natural sunlight; (vi) photoinduced degradation of OM in plants and soil environments.