635
Photosynthesis in Nature: A New Look
et al. 2001), in preformed values (Garcia et al. 1998), in Redfield ratios (Pahlow
and Riebesell 2000), and in biological production (Emerson et al. 2001). The
abundance and geographic distribution of toxin-producing algae is significantly
increasing with respect to global warming and because of increased anthropogenic input of nutrients to aquatic environments (Shumway 1990; Harvell et
al. 1999; Haines et al. 2000; vanDolah 2000; Shumway et al. 2003; Phlips et al.
2004; Yan and Zhou 2004; Luckas et al. 2005). The effects of global warming on
waters are extensively discussed in the global warming chapter, which can help
understanding the overall effects on photosynthesis and other key biogeochemical issues (see chapter “Impacts of Global Warming on Biogeochemical Cycles in
Natural Waters”).
5.11.1 Harmful Algal Blooms
The harmful algal blooms are presumably an effect of global warming on
waters with high content of DOM and POM, as extensively discussed in earlier sections. Harmful algal blooms can cause loss of phytoplankton competitor motility, inhibition of photosynthesis, inhibition of enzymes, membrane
damage, large fish kills, shellfish poisoning, deaths of livestock and wildlife,
death of coral reefs and, finally, illness or even death in humans (Yates and
Rogers 2011; Llewellyn 2006; Richardson 2007; Prince et al. 2008; Etheridge
2010; Harvell et al. 1999; Hallock and Schlager 1986; Hallegraeff 1993; Negri
et al. 1995; Braun and Pfeiffer 2002; Landsberg 2002; Legrand et al. 2003).
Autochthonous organic compounds (e.g. autochthonous fulvic acids) and nutrients are generally produced by algae or phytoplankton, either biologically
(also termed allelopathy: a biological phenomenon by which an organism can
produce various types of biochemicals, which can influence growth, survival,
death, and reproduction of other organisms) or photolytically (see also chapters
“Dissolved Organic Matter in Natural Waters”, “Photoinduced and Microbial
Degradation of Dissolved Organic Matter in Natural Waters”, “Colored and
Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter in Natural Waters” and “Fluorescent
Dissolved Organic Matter in Natural Waters” for detailed description) (Mostofa
et al. 2009, 2011; Prince et al. 2008; Zhang et al. 2009). In addition, various
types of algae such as diatoms, dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria can produce
toxins that can cause death of higher organisms (Castle and Rodgers 2009;
Falconer 1993). Blooms of a red-tide dinoflagellate such as Karenia brevis,
occurring in the coastal seawaters, and Prymnesium parvum, also known as
golden algae, can produce neurotoxic compounds (brevetoxins) that can kill fish
and accumulate in shellfish (Yates and Rogers 2011; Landsberg 2002; Southard
et al. 2010; Tester et al. 1991). Moreover, autochthonous compounds and toxins
produced during toxic algal blooms are susceptible to decrease the photosynthetic efficiency of natural waters.
Photosynthesis in Nature: A New Look
et al. 2001), in preformed values (Garcia et al. 1998), in Redfield ratios (Pahlow
and Riebesell 2000), and in biological production (Emerson et al. 2001). The
abundance and geographic distribution of toxin-producing algae is significantly
increasing with respect to global warming and because of increased anthropogenic input of nutrients to aquatic environments (Shumway 1990; Harvell et
al. 1999; Haines et al. 2000; vanDolah 2000; Shumway et al. 2003; Phlips et al.
2004; Yan and Zhou 2004; Luckas et al. 2005). The effects of global warming on
waters are extensively discussed in the global warming chapter, which can help
understanding the overall effects on photosynthesis and other key biogeochemical issues (see chapter “Impacts of Global Warming on Biogeochemical Cycles in
Natural Waters”).
5.11.1 Harmful Algal Blooms
The harmful algal blooms are presumably an effect of global warming on
waters with high content of DOM and POM, as extensively discussed in earlier sections. Harmful algal blooms can cause loss of phytoplankton competitor motility, inhibition of photosynthesis, inhibition of enzymes, membrane
damage, large fish kills, shellfish poisoning, deaths of livestock and wildlife,
death of coral reefs and, finally, illness or even death in humans (Yates and
Rogers 2011; Llewellyn 2006; Richardson 2007; Prince et al. 2008; Etheridge
2010; Harvell et al. 1999; Hallock and Schlager 1986; Hallegraeff 1993; Negri
et al. 1995; Braun and Pfeiffer 2002; Landsberg 2002; Legrand et al. 2003).
Autochthonous organic compounds (e.g. autochthonous fulvic acids) and nutrients are generally produced by algae or phytoplankton, either biologically
(also termed allelopathy: a biological phenomenon by which an organism can
produce various types of biochemicals, which can influence growth, survival,
death, and reproduction of other organisms) or photolytically (see also chapters
“Dissolved Organic Matter in Natural Waters”, “Photoinduced and Microbial
Degradation of Dissolved Organic Matter in Natural Waters”, “Colored and
Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter in Natural Waters” and “Fluorescent
Dissolved Organic Matter in Natural Waters” for detailed description) (Mostofa
et al. 2009, 2011; Prince et al. 2008; Zhang et al. 2009). In addition, various
types of algae such as diatoms, dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria can produce
toxins that can cause death of higher organisms (Castle and Rodgers 2009;
Falconer 1993). Blooms of a red-tide dinoflagellate such as Karenia brevis,
occurring in the coastal seawaters, and Prymnesium parvum, also known as
golden algae, can produce neurotoxic compounds (brevetoxins) that can kill fish
and accumulate in shellfish (Yates and Rogers 2011; Landsberg 2002; Southard
et al. 2010; Tester et al. 1991). Moreover, autochthonous compounds and toxins
produced during toxic algal blooms are susceptible to decrease the photosynthetic efficiency of natural waters.